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HOW  THE  FARM  PAYS. 


THE  EXPERIENCES  OF  FORTY  YEARS 

OF 

SUCCESSFUL 

FARMING  AND  GARDENING 

BY  THE  AUTHORS, 
WILLIAM    OEOZIEE 

AND 

PETEE    HEISTDEESON". 


NEW  YOEK : 
PETEK  HENDERSON  &  CO.,  35  &  37  CORTL.iNDT  ST. 

1881. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congrees,  in  the  year  18ft4.  by  PETER  HENDERSON  &  CO.,  in 
the  o^ce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress.  Washington,  D.  C, 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

INTRODUCTION 7  and  8 

CHAPTER  I. 

Tkainixg  for  the  Business  of  Farming — Agbicuxtukal  Col- 
lege Education — Selection  of  Soils — Use  op  SIanure — 
Farm  Roads — Drainisg 9  to  25 

CHAPTER   n. 

Manures  and  the  Modes  of  Application — Special  Fer- 
tilizers— Green  Manuring — Fertilizing  by  Feeding 26  to  37 

CHAPTER  m. 

Plowing,  Harrowing  and  Cflttvating — Plows — Harrows — 
Cdlttvators — Rolling  Land — Rollers — Use  of  the 
Feet  in  Sowing  and  Pl.\nting 38  to  51 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Rotation  of  Crops — Corn — Potatoes — Potato  Diseases — 
Sweet  Potatoes — Roots — Wheat — Oats — Barley — Rye 
— Beans — Buckwheat 52  to  84 


4  CJONTESTS. 

CHAPTER   V. 

PAGE. 

Chops  fob  Solldjo  axd  Fodder — Eye — LrcEBS  ob  Axtaua — 
Millet — Peas  and  Oats — Fodder  Corn — Feeding  Soil- 
ing Crops — Abobtios  in  Cows  and  its  Causes — Ergots.  . .  85  to  109 

CHAPTER  YL 

Grass  and  its  Management — A'abieties  of  Grasses — ]Mn;FT) 

Grasses  for  Pasture  asd  Hat 110  to  133 

CHAPTER   ^TL 

Cutting  and   Curing   of    Hay — Clo\-er    Hat — Ensilage — 

Ensilage  Compared  with  Roots 134  to  li5 

CHAPTER  ^TIX 

LrrE  Stock  of  the  Farm — Varieties  of  Cattle — Records  of 
Jerset  Cows — Records  of  Guernsey  Cows — Cattle  for 
Beef — Points  of  Pure  Bred  Cattle — The  Best  Cows 
FOB  THE  Dairy — Feed  and  Care  for  Milk  and  Butter — 
Young  Cattle  and  their  Cabe — Management  of  the 
Dairy — Farm  Horses — Sheep — SwrsE — Farm  Buildixgs 
— Fences — Rearing  and  Keeping  Poultry — Dogs  fob 
THE  Fabm — Useful  Tables  for  the  Farm 146  to  250 

CHAPTER   IX. 

Pests  of  the  Farm — Destbucth'e  Animals — Insect  Pests — 
Par-asites — Pests  of  the  Crops — Injurious  Insects — 
Remedies — Vegetable  Pests 251  to  274 

CHAPTER   X. 

Farm  Machinery — Plows — Harrows — Cultiv.atobs — Mowers 
and  Reapers — Hating  MACHiNEBy — ^Fodder  Cutters — 
CoBN  Huskers  and  Shellers — Cabts — Steam  Engines.  .275  to  300 


Contents.  5 

CHAPTER  XI. 

PAGE. 

Farm  Culture  op  Vegetables  axd  Fruits — Cabbage — Celery 
— The  White  Plume  Celery — S^^"EET  Corn — Cucumbers 
FOR  Pickles — ^Melons  as  a  Market  Crop — Onions  ....  301  to  3G0 

CHAPTEK   XII. 

Culture  of  Peincip-VL  Sm.u.l  Fruit  Crops — Strawberries — 
Blackberries — Raspberries — Currants — Gooseberries — 
Grapes — Orchakd  Fruits 3G1  to  379 

Index 381  to  400 


INTIiODUCTIOX. 


It  is  doubtful  if  any  book  on  agriculture  has  ever  beeu  written  in 
this  country  of  which  the  writers  have  had  opportunities  for  such 
extensive  and  varied  exjjerience  as  have  the  authors  of  this  work. 
"U'rLLiAM  Ceozier  is,  perhaps,  now  better  known  than  any  other 
farmer  on  this  continent,  jjrincipaUy  from  the  fact  that  for  the  past 
twenty  years  the  exhibition  of  his  fine  stock  and  other  farm  jjroducts 
has  enabled  him  to  take  more  prizes  than  any  other  working  farmer 
in  the  country,  and  that  to-day  the  dairy  and  farm  at  Northport, 
Xi.  I.,  on  which  these  products  have  been  raised,  are  models  worthy 
of  imitation  by  the  tens  of  thousands  engaged  in  farming  who  have 
failed  to  make  it  the  iwofitable  business  that  it  has  been,  and  still  con- 
tinues to  be,  to  111'.  Crozier.  The  co-author,  Petek  Henderson,  the 
senior  member  of  our  firm,  although  not  a  farmer,  has  long  been  con- 
sidered, as  is  well  known,  an  authority  on  all  matters  relating  to  iiractical 
garden  work.  His  book,  Gardening  forr  Profit,  now  in  the  hands  of 
j)robably  100,000  readers,  has  shown  how  to  make  gardening  pay. 
In  the  present  work  Mr.  Henderson  tells  in  plain  words  the  manner 
of  gTowing  such  Vefjetahles  and  Fruits  as  can  best  be  made  jjrofitable 
on  the  farm,  besides  interchanging  with  Mr.  Crozier  his  opinions  on 
such  operations  of  the  farm  as  his  long  practice  in  cultivating  the 
soil  enables  him  to  do. 

Mr.  Crozier  and  Mr.  Henderson  have  had  the  project  in  contem- 
plation of  getting  up  a  work  on  American  farming  for  the  jiast  ten 
years;  but  both  being  engaged  in  the  active  work  of  their  large 
operations  on  the  farm  and  garden,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  would  ever 


8  IXTRODrCTIOS. 

have  got  together  to  accomplish  it,  unless  the  idea  had  been  con- 
ceived of  getting  the  work  up  in  conversational  fonn,  the  words  as 
spoken  being  taken  down  by  a  stenographer.  This  sunpUfied  the 
work  of  book  making  greatly,  and  it  is  believed  that  given  in  this  way 
it  has  been  made  plainer  and  more  interesting  to  the  reader  than  Lf 
■written  in  the  usual  manner.  The  benefit  of  this  plan  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  the  answer  often  suggests  a  question,  just  such  as 
the  reader  would  be  likely  to  ask,  but  •\\-ith  no  one  at  his  elbow  to 
answer.  It  is  here  answered  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  questioner,  or 
if  not,  the  question  is  repeated  till  the  subject  has  been  made  clear. 

The  iUusti-ations  given  in  the.  work  are  believed  to  represent  the 
best  standai'd  types  of  their  several  kinds  that  we  possess  uj)  to  this 
date,  the  object  in  all  cases  being  to  give  such  as  are  the  best  and 
the  most  practical  and  economical  for  the  farmer's  purposes. 

PETER  HENDERSON  &  CO., 
3.5  it  37  C'oRTLAxuT  St.,  Publishers. 

New  York. 


Tkajsdjg  for  the  Business  of  FAKMDia. 


CHAPTEK  I. 


TRAINING   FOR  THE   BUSINESS   OF  FARMING. 

Question.  T\Tiat,  in  jour  opinion,  jVIi'.  Crozier,  are  the  chances  of 
making  a  farm  pay,  if  the  owner  is  unable  to  superintend,  it  himself, 
and  has  to  rely  on  the  knowledge  of  hired  superintendence  ?  This  is 
a  question  that  has  been  asked  me  scores  of  times  each  season,  in 
regard  to  the  business  of  market  gardening,  and  my  unvarying  reply 
has  been,  that  the  cliances  for  success  are  all  against  the  person 
undertaking  such  a  business  under  such  conditions. 

Answer.  I  am  inundated  viith.  the  same  sort  of  iuquii-ies,  and  am  glad 
to  have  an  opportunity  of  making  a  general  rejily.  I  entirely  coincide 
with  your  opinion,  that  no  man  sTiould  attempt  farming,  or  garden- 
ing, in  the  hoije  of  making  it  a  jirotitable  business,  unless  he  is  will- 
ing and  able  to  take  hold  with  his  own  hands  and  employ  liis  own 
brains  in  the  work.  I  have  known  of  many  who  have  made  large 
investments  in  farming  and  stock  raising,  but  have  never  known  one 
instance  where  the  owner  who  failed  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
work  ever  made  it  a  success.  It  is  unreasonable  to  expect  it.  If 
you  or  I  took  it  into  our  heads  to  engage  in  the  dry  goods  or  groceiy 
business,  and  put  oiu-  hands  in  our  pockets  and  trusted  entirely  to 
the  knowledge,  honesty  and  energy  of  a  hii-ed  manager  to  run  the 
business,  it  is  certain  that  these  pockets  would  soon  be  empty  if 
their  supply  was  dependent  upon  the  profits.  But  the  educated  city 
merchant,  doctor,  lawyer  or  parson  is  apt  to  look  iipon  the  tillers  of 
the  soil  as  a  slow,  ignorant,  unlettered  class,  destitute  of  business 
eajiacities,  and  often  deludes  himself  with  the  belief  that  bis  want  of 
knowledge  of  rural  aSairs  mil  be  more  than  compensated  by  his  ad- 
vantages of  education  or  business  experience,  when  he  concludes  to 
engage  in  farming.  This  delusion  draws  hundreds  fi-om  the  city  to 
the  farm,  to  their  ruin,  every  year.  The  only  true  way  for  a  man 
who  has  previously  been  engaged  in  other  business,  and  who  wishes 
to  become  a  farmer,  is  to  get  the  privilege  of  taking  active  hold 
of  the  work,  under  the  instruction  of  some  farmer  who  has 
made  the  business  a  success.  Twelve  months  thus  spent  with 
energy  and  apphcation,  would  give  him  a  knowledge  from  which 
a  reasonable    chance   of  success   might   be   expected,    alwaj's   pro- 


10  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

Tided  he  has  the  elements  of  success  withiu  himself.  But  this 
advice  is  only  '  applicahle  to  J'oud}^  men.  It  would  be  folh'  for 
men  of  middle  age  or  past  it  to  make  the  attempt.  In  this  con- 
nection I  may  cite  a  "very  mai-ked  case,  and  one  which  gives  me 
a  very  jjleasing  remembrance.  Dr.  Shanu,  of  York,  England, 
wrote  to  me  some  twelve  years  ago,  asking  me  to  take  his  son, 
a  young  man  of  twenty-one,  who  had  just  comjjleted  a  college 
coui-se  at  Cambridge.  I  agi'eed  to  his  proposal,  and  the  young  fellow 
duly  appeared  one  morning,  verj'  unlike  the  ideal  fanner  indeed, 
dressed  in  the  latest  fashion  and  cane  in  hand.  I  much  feai-ed  to 
look  at  him,  that  he  would  not  be  a  success  at  the  i^low,  Ijut  after 
allowing  him  to  prospect  around  for  a  few  days,  I  told  him  that  the 
contract  between  his  father  and  me  required  that  he  should  take  hold 
and  obey  orders  the  same  as  my  ordinary  hired  men.  He  at  once 
went  down  to  the  village,  rigged  himself  out  with  a  pair  of  overalls, 
flannel  shirt  and  strong  boots,  and  announced  himself  ready.  His 
first  initiation  to  work  was  assisting  to  wash  a  herd  of  Berkshire  pigs 
shoulder  to  shoulder  with  a  rough  Ii-ishman.  From  this  jioint  I 
.saw  that  he  was  made  of  the  right  stuff,  and  placed  him  during  the 
yciu-  and  a  half  .that  he  was  with  me  through  all  the  grades  of  our 
work.  He  was  so  energetic  and  trustworthy,  that  after  he  had  been 
with  me  a  year,  I  entrusted  him  to  take  a  lot  of  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine  to  the  State  Fair  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  with  permission  to  sell  all  if 
he  deemed  the  price  sufScient.  This  he  did  to  my  entire  satisfaction. 
"While  there  he  saw  a  fann  which  his  father  piu-chased  and  stocked 
for  him,  and  to-day  he  is  one  of  the  most  successfid  fanners,  iierhajis, 
in  Georgia. 

(Mr.  H.)  I  have  always  some  five  or  six  such  men  in  my  employ- 
ment who  have  come  to  learn  the  finer  parts  of  Horticidture.  They 
come  to  us  at  a  younger  age  than  wcmld  be  suitable  for  the  heavier 
work  of  the  farm,  usually  from  fifteen  to  sixteen,  and  I  select  all  l)y 
the  merit  of  their  letters  of  application,  for  I  hold,  that  with  the  ad- 
vantages of  education  which  our  school  system  affords,  if  a  boy  at  six- 
teen has  not  had  ambition  enough  to  be  able  to  write  intelligently  at 
that  age,  the  chances  are  that  he  is  not  Hkely  to  become  an  intelligent 
workman ;  and  for  an  apprentice  we  want  nothing  else,  as  we  can  get 
all  the  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  we  want,  at  our  doors; 
but  brains  are  not  so  easily  obtained.  But  with  all  our  care  in  select- 
ing, not  more  than  one  in  ten  ever  attains  to  any  prominence,  and  such 
usually  develop  superiority  from  the  first.  About  ten  yeai-s  ago  I 
received  an  application  from  a  boy  living  in  one  of  the  subtirbs  of 
New  York.  He  said  that  he  was  sixteen,  and  his  letter  was  so  terse  and 
to  the  point  that  I  told  him  to  call.      "NMien  he  made  his  ajipoarance 


AoiiiciTLTuiiAL  Colleges.  11 

he  looked  so  small  and  slight  that  I  told  him  I  thought  our  work  would 
l)e  too  heavy  for  him.  He  begged  to  be  allowed  to  try.  He  was  started 
at  $3. 00  per  week,  but  before  he  was  tweuty  years  of  age,  his  energy, 
intelligence  and  untiring  industry  made  his  services  so  valuable,  that  I 
jiaid  him  a  salary  of  $1,200  per  yeai',  which  was  more  than  I  jjaid  my 
foreman,  a  man  of  forty,  who  had  been  at  the  business  for  twenty  j'ears. 
But  I  could  not  keep  the  young  man  even  at  that.  He  had  saved 
money  enough  to  stiu-t  on  his  own  account,  and  is  now  on  the  straight 
road  to  fortune.  But  there  are  few  sLmUar  cases  in  my  experience  of 
over  twenty  years  ■with  such  youths.  I  have  only  had  one  other  in- 
stance of  the  kind,  but  many  of  them  have  made  faii-ly  successful 
business  men,  and  scores  of  gi'aduates  from  our  estabhshment  are 
now  engaged  in  the  florist  and  market  garden  business  in  ah  jjarts  of 
the  country. 

Q.  What  is  yovir  oisinion  of  the  value  of  agricultural  colleges,  'Mr. 
Henderson,  as  training  schools  in  the  branches  of  farming  or  gar- 
dening? 

A.  I  am  afi-aid  my  opinion  is  too  pronounced  on  this  subject  to  be 
agreeable  to  the  directors  of  some  of  these  institutions.  That  they 
might  be  made  the  very  best  mediums  for  such  a  purpose  I  have 
not  the  least  doubt,  if  the  directors  would  only  be  convinced  that  the 
superintendents,  to  be  successful,  must  have  an  actual  practical 
working  experience  varied  and  extended  enough  to  make  them 
masters  of  the  subject.  But  thus  fai'  I  have  good  reason  to  believe 
that  few  of  them  have  such  men.  The  great  trouble  is  that  they 
fritter  away  the  time  of  the  students  on  abstruse  and  practically  use- 
less theoretical  studies,  wasting  life  in  attempting  to  get  at  the  often 
doubtful  causes  for  the  attainment  of  important  results  in  the  so- 
called  science  of  agriculture  ;  which,  after  all,  with  aU  the  heljj  of 
Liebig,  and  other  such  men,  is  almost  entirely  ignored  by  the 
farmers  and  gardeners  who  ai'e  the  kings  in  those  industries  to-day 
both  in  Europe  and  America. 

I  will  here  repeat  the  views  I  expressed  in  the  Bural  Keic  Yurker 
in  May,  1883,  in  a  discussion  of  this  question. 

"  The  longer  I  hve,  the  less  I  beheve  in  the  value  attached  to  the  so- 
called  science  of  agriculture.  I  believe  that  a  fairly  educated  youth 
would  have  far  better  chances  for  success  in  life  if  the  foiu-  or  six 
years  spent  under  the  difl'erent  jjrofessors  of  an  agricultural  college 
(as  they  are  generally  conducted)  were  sjjent  in  actual  work  of  ten 
hours  a  day  in  a  well  conducted  farm  or  garden.  The  work  might 
not  be  so  pleasant,  and  his  manners  might  not  have  the  polish  that 
friction  with  scholastic  minds  might  give,  but  he  would  be  better 
fitted  for  the  liattle  of  life. 


12  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

"  There  is  awful  humbug  about  many  parts  of  the  so-called  Science 
of  Agriculture.  The  '  Agricultural  Chemist '  analyzes  the  soil  and 
finds  that  it  contains,  or  does  not  contain,  certain  elements  which 
must  be  withheld,  or  put  in,  in  fertilizing.  He  analyzes  cabbage, 
com,  potatoes,  wheat,  turnips,  oranges,  lettuce,  strawberries,  roses 
and  a  score  of  other  genera  of  plants,  and  makes  a  special  formula  of 
a  fertilizer  for  each.  Every  intelligent,  practical  fanner,  with  ten 
years"  experience,  knows  that  this  is  utter  nonsense;  and  yet,  in  not  a 
few  of  oiu-  agricultui-al  colleges,  these  special  fertilizers,  for  special 
purposes,  are  religiously  adopted.  If,  in  the  schools  for  instruction 
in  agiiculture,  the  lessons  were  given  in  the  field,  instead  of,  as  now, 
in  the  college,  we  might  then  look  for  diflFerent  results. 

"  When  a  1)oy,  I  was  a  pupil  in  a  countiy  school  in  Scotland.  It  was 
the  time  when  Captain  Berkley,  and  other  sprigs  of  the  English  aris- 
tocracy, made  the  science  of  pugilism  fashionable,  and  many  c  f  the 
sons  of  the  better  class  of  British  yeomen  took  lessons  in  the 
'science.'  One  of  thes?,  one  day,  landed  at  Edinburgh  as  a  pupil  at 
our  country  school.  He  was  an  aggressive  fellow  and  a  great  blower, 
and  in  a  few  days  he  succeeded  in  making  most  of  iis  stand  in  fear 
and  awe  of  his  wonderful  '  science.'  But  one  day  another  new  boy 
came,  a  blacksmith's  son,  who  had  occasionally  taken  a  hand  with  the 
sledge-hammer,  a  quiet,  retiring  lad,  whom  the  bully  thought  a  good 
subject  to  force  a  quarrel  upon.  It  was  accepted  qxucker  than  he 
anticipated.  In  a  few  minutes  the  young  blacksmith  had  givt  n  him 
a  thorough  thrashing.  He  blubbered  and  admitted  he  was  whipped, 
Vmt  said  the  tight  had  not  Vieen  a  fair  one,  for  '  Ihai  hoy  had  7wt  fought 
according  to  science.'  Maybe  he  had  not,  but  he  came  out  victor, 
nevertheless.  It  is  true  that  the  gfi'aduates  of  West  Point  proved  some 
of  the  best  generals  during  the  late  war,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  b-aining  there  is  but  the  rehearsing  of  actual  wai-,  except  the 
bloodshed — practical  work,  all  of  it — call  it  science,  if  you  please. 
•The  tree  is  known  by  its  fruits,'  and  if  ever  the  day  comes  that  the 
graduates  of  our  agricultiu-al  colleges  become  the  leadei-s — t!;e  gen- 
erals in  agriculttu-e  and  horticulture — then  the  advocates  of  these  in- 
stitutions will  be  justified  in  glorifying  themselves;  but  while  the  rei>- 
resentative  fanners  come  (as  they  almost  exclusively  now  do)  from  (he 
ranks  of  the  hard-handed  workers  in  old  mother  earth,  the  agricul- 
tural community  will  look  with  doubtful  approval  on  the  agiicultural 
colleges,  as  now  conducted,  as  a  means  of  instniction." 

Q.  From  your  business  as  a  breeder  of  fancy  stock,  Mr.  Crozier, 
you  must  have  had  many  opportunities  of  judging  whether  the  hun- 
<.b-eds  of  gentlemen  fanners,  as  they  are  called,  make  their  ventures 
jiay  in  money  in  the  long  run? 


Disadvantages  of  Pooh  Son..  13 

A.  I  do  not,  of  uiy  owu  kuowletlge,  recall  a  single  instance  where 
such  men  have  ever  got  their  original  investments  back,  although 
many  of  them,  having  comjieteut  overseers,  are  handling  their  fancy 
stock  in  a  manner  which,  if  energetically  followed  up  as  a  business,  ought 
to  pay  them  nearly  as  weU  as  we  farmers  who  have  to  make  our  living 
by  it.  But  there  is  another  element  that  compensates,  outside  of  any 
money  return,  and  that  is  that  it  is  a  healthful  recreation,  a  safety- 
valve,  so  to  speak,  from  the  perplexities  of  business  with  which  the 
merchant  or  isrofessional  man  is  visited.  A  well  known  New  York 
gentleman  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  largest  coi-porations  there,  in 
speaking  with  me  the  other  daj'  about  this  matter,  said  that  his  orig- 
inal investment  in  fancy  stock  on  his  farm  and  gai-dens  was  ujjwards  of 
$100,000,  andthatitcost  him  to  maintain  them  nearlj'  $10,000 annually; 
but  he  said  that  the  recreation  he  enjoyed  fi-om  such  an  investment, 
which  be  could  well  afford,  in  all  j^robabUitj'  would  add  ten  years  to 
his  life.  The  advantage  gained  by  men  of  wealth  in  indulging  in 
such  an  occui)ation,  instead  of  in  paintings  or  other  works  of  art,  is,  that 
before  they  can  view  their  treasures,  they  must  get  out  into  the  open 
air  and  sunshine,  which  is  a  valuable  factor  to  take  into  account  along 
with  the  pleasures  of  the  jiiu'suit. 


(Mr.  H. )  I  suppose  you  will  agi-ee  with  me  in  believing  that  the  fii-st 
subject,  and  by  all  odds  the  most  important  factor,  of  success  iu  farm- 
ing, is  the  soil.  This  must  ever  be,  other  things  being  equal,  the  funda- 
mental element  of  success.  While  iu  Europe  a  few  years  ago,  on  an 
extended  tour  in  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent,  I  observed  that 
although  the  lauds  in  all  these  regions  had  been  cultivated  probably  for 
five  hundi-ed  years,  wherever  the  soil  was  natui'aUy  fertile  there 
were  foiuid  good  farm  buildings,  good  fences,  horses,  wagons  and  har- 
ness, everything  to  indicate  prosj^erity.  On  the  other  hand,  wherever 
a  poor,  sterile  soil  predominated,  there  were  found  farm  buildings, 
fences  and  cattle  that  indicated  poverty'.  As  well  may  a  stage  coach 
attempt  to  compete  vrith  a  locomotive,  as  a  farmer  owning  poor  and 
sterile  land  with  the  owner  of  a  rich,  fertile  soil,  if  they  sell  their  pro- 
ducts in  the  same  market.  It  is  a  delusive  belief,  thatmaniuingor  till- 
age, no  matter  how  good,  will  ever  biing  a  poor,  thin  soil  into  permanent 
fertility,  unless  the  application  of  niamu-e  is  j'early  continued;  for  no 
ordinary  amount  of  manuring  or  cultivation  will  maintain  the  fertility 
of  any  soil  over  two  years,  as  it  will  then  either  have  been  taken  up  by 
the  crops  growing  on  it,  or  else  have  been  washed  down  below  the  depth 
at  which  the  roots  penetrate.     It  requires  some  extent  of  i^ractical 


14:  How  THK  Farm  Pats. 

experience  to  know  what  is  a  good  soil.  I  well  remember  a  blunder 
that  I  made  in  my  early  experience  in  this  matter.  5Iy  partner  and  I, 
■when  we  started  business  in  Jersey  City,  N.  J. ,  had  both  been  regulai-ly 
bred  as  horticulturists,  jjartly  in  Europe  and  pailly  here,  and  yet  on  our 
fir.st  purchase  of  lands  for  market  garden  pui'poses  in  Hudson  County, 
N.  J.  — which  borders  on  New  York  City — we  made  a  mistake  in  our 
selection,  and  no  amount  of  the  highest  culture,  although  that  is  now 
thiiij-  years  ago,  has  ever  been  able  to  bring  the  soil  into  what  would 
be  termed  even  second-rate  condition.  ■  The.  eiTor  we  made  was  in 
selecting  a  soil  appai'ently  good,  but  which  was  underlaid  by  a 
stratum  of  clay  ten  inches  below  the  surface;  and  to-daj',  with  all  our 
draining  and  subsoihng  and  every  known  means  of  culture,  it  is 
imjjossible  for  us  to  raise  crops  as  good  as  those  half  a  mile  away  where 
the  subsoil  is  of  jsorous  sand.  I  mention  tbis  to  show  the  impt)r- 
tance  of  selecting,  whenever  practicable,  a  suitable  soU  for  all  oper- 
ations, whether  of  the  fai-ni  or  of  the  garden;  for  had  it  not  been  by 
an  accident  of  circumstance,  that  our  lauds  became  valuable  from 
their  iiroxiniity  to  the  city,  om-  unfortunate  pm-chase  would  have 
iiiiued  us.  Now,  ill*.  Crozier,  with  these  prehmiuary  remarks  in  I'ela- 
tion  to  soil,  let  me  ask:  What  ai-e  the  general  chai'acteristics  of  the  soil 
here  on  yoiu*  farm,  on  which  you  have  been  so  successful  in  raising 
the  various  root  and  other  crops? 

A.  It  is  a  sandy  loam  in  some  places  and  gravelly  loam  in  others; 
the  sandy  loam  runs  fi'om  ten  to  fifteen  inches  in  depth,  and  the 
subsoil  is  a  mixture  of  loam  and  sand.  The  gravelly  soil  is  about 
ten  inches  in  depth,  with  a  subsoil  which  runs  into  a  tine  sand,  simi- 
lar to  that  which  the  sandy  loam  overhes. 

Q.  Have  you  ever  had  any  experience  with  adhesive  soils  over- 
lying clay,  and  what  has  been  your  success  with  such  soils,  and 
■vsith  what  crops  ? 

A.  I  have  had  good  success  with  oats,  rj-e,  bai-ley  and  turnips; 
but  for  mangels,  caiTots,  or  other  deei^-rooted  i-oot  crops,  the  lighter 
soU  is  preferable. 

Q.  If  the  subsoil  is  perfectly  fi'ee  fi-om  watrr,  I  presume  you  wUl 
agree  witli  me  in  beheving  that  the  more  level  the  land  is,  the 
better? 

A.  In  this  climate  I  would  say  yes. 

Q.  AMiy  not  in  any  cUmate  ? 

A.  Because  in  Eui'ope,  for  instance,  they  have  a  wetter  climate,  with 
less  sunshine  than  we  have  here,  and  crops  such  as  oats,  bai'ley 
and  wheat  could  be  better  harvested  on  ridge  lands  than  on  level 
siU'faces. 

Q.  Yes,  I  am  aware  of  the  greater  moistm-e  of  the  European  cU- 


Varieties  of  Soil.  15 

mate,  although  we  have  more  raiu  iii  the  year  here ;  but  my  question 
related  more  to  the  choice  of  lands  that  are  level,  such  as  some  of  the 
jirauies;  or  roUiug,  as  in  districts  of  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and 
Ohio — I  mean,  if  the  soil  is  of  equal  fertility,  which  would  you  con- 
sider preferable — a  slightly  roUing,  or  a  level  soil  ? 

A.  I  should  prefer  the  level  soil — that  is,  always  providing  the 
water  passes  away  freely.  It  depends,  however,  upon  the  pui'pose 
for  which  the  farm  is  wanted.  If  for  general  farming  pm-jioses, 
then,  I  should  say  by  all  means  the  level  land  would  be  best ;  but  if  the 
farm  is  used  for  pastm-ing  or  grazing,  roUing  land  would  be  prefer- 
able, because  cattle  wOl  always  do  better  on  the  slope  of  bills  than 
they  win  do  on  flats. 

Q.  Do  you  know  the  reason  of  their  doing  better,  or  is  your  opinion 
simplj'  derived  from  observation  and  general  practice  ? 

A.  I  think  that  there  is  more  change  of  herbage,  and  it  is  sweeter 
and  finer,  on  the  hiU-sides,  than  in  the  flat  lands,  where  it  is  too  rich. 

Q.  In  that  you  are  probably  correct;  and  this,  too,  you  cons-ider 
would  be  true  of  almost  every  other  crop,  as  well  as  grasses? 

A.  Yes;  sorghum  grown  on  a  hill-side  will  produce  from  the  same 
amount  of  juice  one-third  more  sugar  than  if  grown  on  bottom  lands, 
and  the  same  principle  will  be  found  to  be  carried  through  nearly  all 
kinds  of  vegetation.  Melons  and  grapes  that  have  been  planted  on 
roUing  ground  are  always  richer  in  flavor,  because  they  contain 
more  sugar  than  those  on  the  bottom  land. 

Q.  WTiat  has  been  your  experience  with  land  composed  of  peat  or 
vegetable  mold? 

A.  I  have  always  considered  it  to  be  the  best  land  for  root  crops. 
You  can  grow  a  larger  quantity  of  roots  such  as  mangels,  beets,  tur- 
nips or  j)otatoes  on  such  land,  vntli  less  labor  and  less  manure,  than 
on  any  other  soU;  provided  always  that  the  subsoil  is  free  from 
water. 

Q.  Have  you  ever  experienced  any  diflSculty  in  breaking  up  land  of 
this  kind  for  crops  grown  the  first  season? 

A.  Yes;  on  two  occasions  in  my  experience  in  breaking  up  land  of 
this  character,  even  when  thoroughly  turned,  there  was  some  acidity 
in  the  soU  that  destroyed  the  roots.  Lime  would  have  counteracted 
all  that  trouble,  if  thoroughly  mixed  vrith  the  soil  at  the  rate  of  fifty 
to  thi'ee  hundred  bushels  per  acre  ;  for  market  gardens  or  other  lands 
where  it  can  be  afforded,  the  larger  quantity  would  be  preferable. 

Q.  Do  not  swamp  lands  vary  very  much  in  character  ;  and  should 
their  treatment  not  be  in  accordance  with  this  variation  ? 

A.  These  lands  do  vary  ;  some  consist  wholly  of  peat  or  vegetable 
matter,  and  some  have  a  large  proportion  of  sand  in  them.     The  for- 


16  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

mcr  kiud  is  inucli  improved  by  the  addition  of  siiud  or  gi-avel  ;  the 
latter  kind  is  benefited  by  a  mixtiu-e  of  clay. 

Q.  'Would  you  consider  lime  iudisijeusable  if  sand,  or  gi-avel,  or 
clay  could  be  had  ? 

A.  Yes,  I  should  say  by  all  means  to  put  on  Hme,  no  matter  how 
little  of  it  ;  the  clay  or  loam  can  be  better  dispensed  with. 

(Mi:  H.)  I  have  had  only  one  experience  in  my  life  -with  a  swamp 
of  that  kind,  and,  probably  for  want  of  using  the  means  you  now  ad- 
vise, I  failed  completely  the  tirst  year.  I  had  turned  up  the  swamp 
land  in  the  fall,  thoroughly  drained  it,  and  thought  it  was  in  perfect 
condition  for  a  crop.  I  planted  the  first  crop  with  cabbages,  but 
failed  completely  ;  I  turned  it  up  again  and  jJanted  it  with  celery, 
which  was  equally  a  failure,  although  I  had  used  nearly  twenty-five 
tons  per  acre  of  manure  for  each  crop.  To  all  appearances  there 
was  nothing  in  the  handling  or  condition  of  the  soil  that  would  in- 
dicate any  element  injuiious  to  vegetation. 

Q.  "What  depth  of  soil  was  it  ? 

A.  It  was  probably  three  feet  deep,  overlying  a  fine  white  sand. 
The  next  season,  and  for  some  years  after,  by  heavy  manuring,  but 
still  without  lime,  we  had  good  crops,  although  fi'oni  my  past  ex- 
perience on  other  lands,  and  fi'om  what  you  say  about  the  eflect  of 
lime  when  first  used  for  swamp  land,  I  have  no  doubt  it  would  have 
greatly  helped  such  a  soil.  I  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  the 
soil  of  Florida  last  winter,  which  I  beheve  is  veiy  neai-ly  identical 
with  that  of  Yinelaud,  N.  J.,  and  was  astonished  to  see  the 
fertiUty  which  land  apparently  little  else  but  sand  contained.  This 
goes  to  confirm  the  opinion  that  I  have  long  held  about  soUs,  that 
their  mechanical  condition — that  is,  the  ease  with  which  roots  can 
push  deeply  into  them — has  mucli  to  do  in  producing  good  crops 
■when  great  depth  of  that  soil  exists. 

In  your  opinion,  !Mj'.  Crozier,  which  is  best  fitted  to  retain  barn- 
yai'd  manure — an  adhesive  soil  with  a  clayey  bottom,  a  loam  with  a 
sandy  cr  gravelly  bottom,  or  well  drained  swamp  land  with  a  sandy 
bottom  ? 

A.  A  heavy  land  with  a  clay  subsoil  will  retain  manure  twice  as 
long  as  any  other  soil.  But  it  would  depend  altogether  on  what  pur- 
pose the  laud  was  used  for.  If  for  permanent  grass,  there  is  no  land 
will  retain  manure  so  long  as  stifl"  soils  with  clayey  subsoils.  I  have 
known  it  to  be  kept  forty  years  without  being  plowed,  by  applying 
an  occasional  top  dressing  of  either  barn-yard  manure  or  a  compost 
made  of  loam  and  lime.  The  best  loam  for  such  purposes  is  that 
taken  from  fence  rows,  because  it  contains  rich  fibrous  sod. 


How  TO  Use  Manure.  17 

Q.  About  ■vrhat  quantity  of  such  a  compost  would  jou  consider  a 
good  top  dressing  per  acre  ? 

A.  About  twenty  two-horse  wagon  loads. 

Q.  How  much  stable  manui-e  would  you  advise  for  a  dressing  on 
such  land  ? 

A.  About  ten  wagon  loads.  I  would  say,  howeyer.  that  stable 
maniu'e  should  not  be  put  on  unless  oyer  a  year  old  or  composted  and 
worked  up  fine,  as  coarse  manure  is  not  suitable  for  permanent  grass 
lands. 

Q.  What  season  of  the  yeai-  do  you  consider  the  best  for  jiutting 
on  toj)  tU'essiug  for  permanent  grass  lands? 

A.  I  think  the  fall  is  the  best  time.  If  put  on  in  the  fall  it  jsro- 
tects  the  roots  of  the  grass  fi'om  freezing  and  thawing,  acting  as  a 
mulch,  and  also  bj-  freezing  it  is  made  fine  for  the  harrow  in  the 
spring  to  yrork  it  into  the  roots  of  the  grasses. 

Q.  AYhat  harrow  do  you  use  for  such  a  j)uri)Ose  ? 

A.  I  use  the  square  iron-tooth  harrow  or  diamond  chain  haiTow, 
which  latter  is  now  coming  into  use  among  some  of  our  best  farmers 
in  this  countrj'.  The  common  sloping  tooth  harrow  does  this  work 
very  well,  and  so  does  that  useful  new  implement,  the  Acme  harrow. 

Q.  On  sandy  loam  lands,  what  do  you  consider  the  most  profitable 
way  to  apply  barn-yard  maniu-e  for  general  crops? 

A.  I  have  found  in  my  experience  that  the  best  way  is  to  i^low  the 
land,  spi'ead  the  manui'e  broadcast,  hari'ow  it,  and  plow  again  two  or 
three  inches  deep.  The  nearer  the  toj)  of  the  ground  we  keep  the 
manure,  so  long  as  it  is  covered,  the  more  benefit  the  crops  will  re- 
ceive from  it,  and  the  manure  of  coui'se  will  always  work  downwards, 
fi'om  the  rains.  The  general  practice  of  farmers  in  the  United  States 
is  to  spread  the  manure,  and  then  plow  it  under. 

(;\Ir.  H.)  Your  jDractice  in  this  respect  is  certainly  good  and  is  en- 
tirelj'  new  to  me ;  it  shows  the  benefit  of  a  personal  interchange  of 
ideas  on  these  subjects.  I  am  satisfied  that  your  plan  of  harrowing 
the  manure  on  the  surface  before  plowing  it  in  hghtly,  as  just  described, 
must  be  of  great  benefit,  although  in  my  thirty-five  years'  expe- 
rience as  a  market  gardener,  and  living  in  a  section  where  there  are 
scores  of  others,  many  of  whom  have  had  a  jwactice  as  extended  as 
mine,  I  have  never  yet  seen  it  done.  It  is  obvious  that  no  matter 
how  well  manure  maj-  be  rotted,  still  when  spread  on  the  land  it  will 
form  hard  hunps,  less  or  more,  unless  broken  up  by  the  haiTow  as  you 
describe,  whUe  the  disintegration  of  other  ijarticles  by  the  haiTow 
will  leave  it  just  in  the  condition  necessaiy  for  the  food  of 
plants. 


18  How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 

Is  there  any  guide,  tili:  Crozier,  by  which  inexperienced  men,  with- 
out any  one  to  help  them,  can  detenuine  what  is  the  best  soil  for  gen- 
eral farm  work? 

A.  If  the  farm  is  to  be  selected  on  lands  where  there  has  been 
general  cultivation,  the  best  test  to  determine  the  value  of  such  lands 
is  to  closely  examine  and  compai-e  the  crops  glowing  on  lands  adjacent. 
If  under  ordinary  culture  you  see  these  lands  i)roducing  good  crojjs 
of  com,  wheat  or  potatoes,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  if  on  the  same 
level,  that  the  land  in  question  will,  in  all  probabihty,  be  of  similar 
quality. 

Q.  But  suppose  the  farm  has  to  be  selected  in  a  region  where  there 
is  nothing  but  timber  or  the  natiu-al  gi-asses  to  guide  ?  AMiat  then 
would  be  your  advice  ? 

A.  Under  such  <-ircumstances  I  would  take  a  spade  and  dig  in  dif- 
ferent jiarts  of  the  farm  and  find  out  what  the  soils  and  subsoils  are 
composed  of,  and  what  they  would  be  best  adapted  for.  The  timber 
and  native  grasses  growing  on  such  lands  would  not  always  help  to 
decide  as  to  the  quality  of  the  land.  There  would  be  no  safetj'  in 
judging  from  such  indications,  as  we  find  sometimes  heavy  timber 
gi-owing  on  lands  not  well  fitted  for  farm  oj^erations,  and  even  some 
lands  on  which  the  natural  gi-asses  seem  to  be  poor,  will  under 
projjer  cultivation  produce  excellent  crojis.  So  that  in  such  cases,  if 
there  are  no  cultivated  crops  gi-o^\-ing  in  the  vicinity,  the  only  thing 
is  an  examination  of  the  soil  by  digging  into  it  with  a  spade.  For 
this  reason,  it  wUl  be  advisable,  if  a  disinterested  and  capable  practical 
farmer  can  be  found,  for  anj-  one  about  to  invest  five  or  ten  thousand 
dollars  in  a  fai-m,  to  employ  such  a  man  to  guide  him  in  the  choice 
of  the  soil.  Of  covu'se  the  object  for  which  the  farm  is  wanted  must 
be  stated  to  the  exj)ert,  whether  it  be  wanted  for  grazing  purposes 
only,  or  for  rotation  of  crops,  or  for  wliat  is  known  as  mixed  farming, 
which  combines  stock  raising  and  general  tillage.  If  the  selection  be 
a  good  one  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  fair  success  with  ordiuai-y  indus- 
try, while  if  it  is  bad,  failure  and  iniin  will  in  all  probability  be  the 
result. 

(^Ir.  H.)  I  have  scores  come  to  me  in  the  coiu"se  of  every  season 
for  advice  in  this  matter  of  soils,  but  in  most  instances  the  ad\-ice  is 
asked  too  late.  Many  pei-sons  have  been  iinfortunatc  enough  to  buj' 
or  rent  land  that  they  had  been  led  to  beheve  was  excellent,  but  only 
"  run  down."  In  my  opiiiiim,  this  wide-spread  notion  of  "  exhausted 
lands  "  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  fallacy,  and  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
lands  said  to  have  been  exhausted  never  were  good  ;  and  no  power 
on  earth  short  of  spreading  a  good  soil  over  them,  half  a  foot  thick. 


Selection  of  Soil.  19 

■would  ever  make  them  good.  In  a  recent  visit  to  tiie  South,  I  met 
a  man  who  had  gone  down  four  years  ago,  and  had  bought  an  "  ex- 
hausted farm."  With  Northern  energj-  and  Northern  capital  lie 
hoped  to  restore  it  to  what  he  had  been  told  it  had  previouslj'  been — ■ 
a  fertile  farm.  A  large  espenditui-e  and  the  hard  work  of  several 
years  had  failed  to  give  a  crop  of  corn  that  paid  for  the  labor.  I 
could  see  no  stalk  that  had  been  more  than  live  feet  high,  and  manj- 
of  them  less  than  that.  The  poor,  j'eUow  soil  in  no  place  exceeded 
four  inches  in  depth,  and  was  underlaid  by  a  hard  pan  of  clay.  The 
labor  put  upon  such  a  soil  will  never  pay.  MiUious  of  acres  of  lands 
are  purchased  annually  which  are  of  but  little  more  use  for  farming 
purposes  than  the  same  area  in  a  barren  wilderness.  Then,  it  may 
be  asked.  How  is  a  farmer  to  select  his  soil  ?  First,  he  should  never 
buj-  a  farm  without  personal  examination — never  take  the  seller's 
word  about  it ;  he  maj'  honestly  believe  that  what  he  asserts  is  true, 
or  he  may  know  it  to  be  false  ;  but  in  either  case  if  you  ai-e  deceived 
you  suffer.  Make  the  examination  thorough  ;  observe  the  svuTound- 
ings,  and  if  the  district  is  settled  and  crojsped.  Examine  -with  care 
the  condition  of  crops  on  the  farm  and  those  upon  land  adjoining  it. 
If  the  crops  are  sickly  looking  and  weak — if  the  corn-stalks,  instead 
of  being  seven  or  eight  feet  in  height,  are  but  two  or  three — you 
had  better  lose  your  time  and  expenses  and  get  home  again,  than 
take  the  farm  as  a  gift.  If  there  are  no  crops  gi-owing,  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  will  be  indicated  by  its  appearance.  A  good  soil  is 
usually  of  dark  bi'own  color  ;  the  subsoil,  lying  immediately  under 
the  top  soil,  should  be  of  a  porous  nature,  and  it  is  usually,  in  first-rate 
soUs,  of  a  yellowish,  sandy  loam.  A  gravelly  subsoil  is  often  found 
■underlying  soils  of  good  quality,  but  this  is  not  so  common.  A  sub- 
soil of  blue  or  yeUow  clay,  such  as  might  be  used  for  brick  making 
and  that  is  impei-^'ious  to  water,  when  near  the  surface,  is  a  certain 
indication  of  a  poor  quality  of  soil  for  either  farming  or  gardening. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  value  of  different  soils  for  market  garden 
purposes,  there  are  men  in  our  immediate  neighborhood  who  pay 
$100  per  acre  annual  rent,  and  who,  in  the  past  ten  or  twelve  years, 
have  made  snug  little  fortunes  upon  eight  or  nine  acres  in  cultivation. 
Not  more  than  half  a  mile  away  there  are  others  paying  less  than  half 
that  amount  in  rent,  who  have  in  the  same  time  been  struggUng  to 
make  both  ends  meet.  Though  equally  industrious,  and  having  as 
good  a  knowledge  of  the  business,  their  failure  has  resulted  simply 
from  the  dift'erence  in  the  character  of  the  soil.  In  the  one  case  the 
land  would  be  cheaper  at  $100  per  acre  annual  rent  than  the  other 
■would  be  if  it  could  be  had  for  nothing. 


20  HiAv  THE  Farm  Pays. 

(Mr.  C.)  A  farm  sui.eil  for  mixed  fanning  is  safer  tiixn  wheu  the 
farm  is  clevoted,  as  in  some  cases,  to  growing  exclusively  one  crop — 
safer  because  you  are  not  thus  compelled  to  carry  all  your  eggs  in 
one  basket.  If  the  season  is  wet  and  cold,  tlie  gra.ss  crop  will  respond 
to  it,  although  your  corn  crop  m  ly  f.iil,  and  vice  uer.-a.  Stock  raising,  in 
connection  with  tillage,  compels  the  raising  of  root  and  forage  crops, 
some  of  wliich  will  always  firove  profitable  under  proper  management, 
no  matter  how  the  seasons  or  the  markets  vary.  It  also  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  aUowiug  the  farmer  to  keep  the  most  of  his  hands  during 
the  entire  year.  In  the  vicinity  of  towns  or  villages,  summer  board- 
ing houses,  or  hotels,  the  gro\^-ing  of  the  finer  vegetables  or  flints,  iu 
addition  to  the  regular  farm  crops,  will  always  prove  profitable.  A 
single  acre  of  fruit  or  vegetables,  when  sold  direct  to  the  consumer, 
\\t11  often  ^sield  more  profit  th m  an  entire  farm  of  one  hundred  acres. 
But  you,  j\Ii'.  Henderson,  who  hxve  had  such  ample  experience  in 
these  subjects,  will  append  to  tliis  work  brief  and  plain  instractions 
of  how  to  do  it. 

Q.  You  are  aware  of  the  fact,  I  suppose,  Mr.  Crozier,  that  it  is  cur- 
rently beheved  in  the  Southern  States,  and  probably  in  other  parts 
of  the  country,  that  lands  are  exhausted  almost  irrei>arably  by  the 
continued  growing  of  tobacco  or  other  exhaustive  crops  on  them.  I 
would  Uke  to  hear  what  is  yoiu-  opinion  on  this  matter.  To  give  you 
my  own  ojjinion  in  advance,  I  believe  it  is  a  fallacj'  to  a  great 
extent. 

A.  I  should  say  that  continual  planting  of  one  crop  on  the  same  soil 
will  impoverish  it  until  it  becomes  wortliless. 

t^.  Do  you  mean  permanently  wortliless  ? 

A.   No." 

Q.  That  is  just  the  jxiint  I  wish  to  make — that  the  injury  to  the 
land  is  only  temporary. 

A.  Yes;  and  V>y  judicious  cropping  -with  grasses  or  clovei-s  the  land 
may  again  be  brought  up  to  its  former  fertility.  The  reason  for  the 
l)opular  opinion  in  this  matter,  and  which  I  believe  has  led  to  a  great 
deal  of  unuecesaaiy  loss,  is  that  when  such  lands  are  first  broken  up, 
they  will  produce  good  crops  ^vith  very  little  or  no  manure,  because 
the  plants  have  the  roots  of  the  grasses,  leaves  or  other  organic 
matter  to  feed  upon,  but  when  this  supj^ly  of  plant  food  is  oxliausted, 
witliout  a  corresponding  amount  of  manure  being  again  ajiplied,  the 
land  is  robbed  of  nearly  all  the  fertility  which  it  had,  in  the  first  two 
or  three  years  after  being  broken.  That  I  think  is  the  tnie  cause  of 
this  wide-spread  belief  that  ha«  allowed  thousands  of  acres  of  land  to 
lie  waste. 


Selection  of  a  Farm.  21 


FARM   ROADS. 

(Mr.  C.)  In  selecting  a  farm,  it  is  of  vital  importance  to  see  that 
the  roads  leading  from  it  to  the  depot  or  market  are  in  such  con- 
dition, or  can  be  made  so,  as  to  be  easily  used  by  loaded  wagons. 
Many  a  fine  farm  is  rendered  completely  worthless  when  the  ap- 
proaches to  it  are  intercepted  by  steep  hills  or  other  obstructions  to 
the  hauling  of  heavy  loads.  It  is  also  worth  noting  that  many  diffi- 
cult roads  that  are  carried  over  hills  could  have  been  carried  around 
them  on  a  level,  without  increasing  their  length  and  of  course  greatly 
increasing  their  usefulness.  Nearness  to  a  dej)ot,  town  or  city  of 
course  vastly  enhances  the  value  to  the  cultivator,  not  only  for  the 
advantage  of  selling  his  products  and  getting  manure,  but  also  when 
hired  helj)  is  used;  the  facilities  for  getting  such  are  better,  besides 
the  isrice  paid  is  usually  higher  the  fai'ther  you  get  away  from  jjojiu- 
lous  centres.  It  is  bad  enough  when  har^^est  hands  strike  or  abscond 
when  you  are  neai-  a  city,  but  it  is  disheartening  in  the  extreme  when 
they  do  so  when  you  are  five  or  six  miles  from  a  depot,  and  perhaps 
twenty  miles  from  a  town.  A  word  here  as  a  oaution.  If  you  engage 
new  hands  fi-om  any  hiring  mart  in  New  York  or  other  large  citj',  do 
not  trust  to  have  them  meet  you  at  depot  to  go  home.  From  the 
moment  you  hire  them  keep  possession  of  them,  or  the  chances  are 
five  to  one  that  you  will  never  see  them  again.  Another  thing:  if  you 
want  two  men,  it  will  be  best  to  hire  three,  for  the  chances  are  more 
than  equal  that  one  of  the  thi'ee  will  either  jsrove  worthless  or  run 
awav. 


The  following  short  essay  on  draining  is  embodied  in  Peter 
Henderson's  work,  "  Garden  and  Farm  Topics."  A\'e  give  it  here,  as 
it  is  of  general  character.  Although  it  refers  more  particularly  to 
areas  of  small  extent,  when  used  for  market  garden  purposes,  it  will 
be  found  to  apply  equally  to  larger  areas.  The  broad  fact  may,  how- 
ever, be  asserttd,  that  the  expense  of  di-aining  farm  lands  would  in 
many  cases  exceed  the  cost  of  laud  equally  good  that  required  no 
draining  :  and  of  course  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  assure 
himself  that  the  farm  he  wishes  to  purchase  does  not  require  to  be 
drained  artificially,  but  whenever,  by  any  unfortunate  circumstance, 
possession  is  had  of  lands  rcquii'ing  draining,  the  cultiv.itiou  had 
better  be  abandoned,  r.ither  than  attempt  to  till  it  if  water  is  held 
stagnant  in  the  soil.  Certain  conditions  of  laud  might,  however,  be 
utilized   for   pastiu'age  without  underdi'aining,  provided  that  open 


22  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

ditches  were  made  to  allow  the  surplus  water  to  pass  off,  but  of  coui-se, 
as  all  cultivators  well  kuow,  eveu  for  p:isturap;e  no  fertile  crop  cau  he 
obtained  if  stagnant  water  remains  on  the  soil. 

Draining  is  one  of  the  most  impoi-tant  ojjerations  in  horticulture 
No  matter  how  fertile  the  noniial  condition  of  the  soil,  no  matter  how 
abundantly  it  is  fertilized,  no  matter  how  carefullj-  and  thoroughly  it 
is  tilled,  if  water  remain  in  it  at  the  depth  to  which  roots  jjeiietrate, 
all  labor  wiU  be  in  vain;  for  no  satisfactory  result  can  ever  be  attained 
until  the  water  is  drained  off.  The  subject  is  one  of  such  importance 
that  we  cannot  give  it  full  attention  here,  and  to  such  as  recpiire  to 
operate  on  a  lai-ge  scale,  works  specially  devoted  to  the  subject  should 
be  consulted,  or  a  di-aining  engineer  employed.  Soils  having  a 
gravelly  or  sandy  subsoil  ten  or  twenty  inches  below  the  top  soil  do 
not  usually  need  di'aining;  but  in  all  soils  underlaid  by  clay  or  hard 
pan,  draining  is  indispensable,  unless  in  cases  where  there  is  a  slope 
of  two  to  three  feet  in  a  hundi'ed;  and  even  in  such  cases  draining  is 
lieueficiid  if  the  subsoil  is  clay. 

In  soils  ha%-ing  a  clay  or  hard  pan  subsoil,  drains  sliould  be  made 
three  feet  deep  and  not  more  than  twenty  feet  apart.  If  stones  ai'e 
plenty,  they  may  be  profitably  used  to  fill  up  the  drains,  say  to  a  depth 
of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches,  either  placed  so  as  to  form  a  "rubble  "  drain, 
if  the  stones  are  round,  or  built  -with  an  oiifice  at  the  bottom,  if  the 
stones  are  flat.  In  either  case,  care  must  be  used  to  cover  the  stones 
carefully  \vp  with  inverted  sods,  or  some  material  that  will  jjrevent 
the  soil  being  washed  thi'ough  the  stones  and  choking  up  the 
drain. 

Drain  tiles,  when  they  cau  be  obtained  at  a  i-easonable  firice,  are 
the  best  material  for  draining.  The  round  tile  is  generally  used.  If 
the  di-ain  has  a  hsu'd  bottom  they  can  be  placed  directly  on  it 
when  leveled  to  the  jiropcr  grade  ;  but  if  the  ground  is  soft  and 
spongj-,  a  board  must  be  laid  in  the  bottom,  on  which  to  place  the 
tiles.  It  i.s  often  a  very  troublesome  matter  to  get  the  few  drain  tiles 
necessary  for  a  small  garden,  and  in  such  cases  an  excellent  and  clieap 
substitute  can  be  had  by  using  one  of  boards.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  boards  are  not  nailed  together  too  closely,  else  they  might 
swell  so  as  to  prevent  the  water  passing  into  the  drain  to  be  carried 
oft".  These  drains  ai-e  iisually  set  with  a  fiat  side  down,  but  they  wiU 
keep  cleiu'  better  if  put  with  a  point  down,  though  it  is  more  trouble 
to  lay  them.  Drains  made  in  this  way  will  last  twenty  years  or  more. 
Of  course,  in  draining,  the  greater  the  fall  that  can  be  got,  the 
better,  though,  if  the  grading  is  carefully  done  by  a  competent  engi- 
neer, a  very  slight  fall  wUl  sufiice.  Some  of  the  trunk  or  main  sewera 
in  our  cities  have  onlv  a  grade  of  one  foot  in  a  thousand. 


Draining  Land. 


23 


Tlie  following;-  details  of  the  method  of  the  construction  of  drains 
may  be  found  useful : 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  DRAINS. 


In  draining  land,  there  are  two  things  to  be  decided  :  the  first  is  if 
the  land  requii-es  to  be  drained  ;  and  the  second,  the  best  kind  of 
drains  to  be  put  in.     An  easy  way  of  deciding  the  first  is  to  notice  if 
water  will  stand  in  a  hole,  two  feet  deep,  for  a  week,  at  any  time  of 
the  year.     If  it  does,  the  land  requires  drainage.     There  are  several 
kinds  of  drains.     One  kind,  that  is  often  very  useful,  is  a  perpen- 
.,     dicular  drain.    This  is  used  for  drain- 
ing   hoUows  that   cannot   easily   be 
jjjv,<  j     freed  from  water  any  other  waj',  be- 

I     cause  of  the  depth  of  the  necessary 
I    cutting.     A.  pit  is  dug  down  to  sand 
I    or   gravel,   and   is  filled  with   large 
1,1       .    ..  ..  .,^.....  stone   up   to   the   surface,   which  is 

raised  by  filling  in  the  earth  dug  out  of  the  pit — of  course  keeping  the 

surface  soil  on  the  top.     Two  things  are  gained  by  this:  the  ground 

is  freed  from  water,  and  the  surface  of  the  hoUow  is  raised.     In 

l^astures  where  there   is  no  other  water,    a  pump  may   be  put  in 

such  a  hollow.    "WTaere  there  is  plenty  of  stone 

or  coarse  gravel  on  the  land,   drains  may  be 

made   very  cheaply  by  fiUing  in   with  these 

materials   to   within    a    foot   of    the   surface. 

Some  stone  drains,  well  made,  are  better  than 

tile  drains,  because  the  stone  is  imjierishable  ; 

but  if  a  stone  drain  is  not  weU  made,  it  will 

soon  be  useless  ;  and  so  will  a  tile  drain,  more 

j)articularly   if  the   tiles  are  not  thoroughly 

biuTied,  so  as  to  ring  when  struck.     The  best 

stone  drain  is   made  of  flat,  nari'ow  stones, 

bedded  firmly  at  each  side  of  the  ditch,  and 

covered  by  broad,  flat  stone,  stretching  across  ; 

rough  stone  may  be  put  on  the  top  of  these.  '^  ■■  "i"'  "  -' 

WTiere  only  round  stone  is  to  be  found,  a  special  way  of  placing  them 

must  be  used.     (This  is  shown  very  plainly  in  the    accompanying 

illustrations.)     In  making  drains  of  gravel,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 

dig  the  ditch  as  if  tile  was  to  be  jiut  in — that  is,  thii-ty  inches  or 

three  feet  deep  ;    eighteen  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  four  or  six 

inches  wide  at  the  bottom — and  fiU  in  tlie   gravel  eighteen  inches. 

Stone  or  gravel  drains  are  better  for  veiy  wet  lands  and  for  swamp 


24 


How  iHF.  Faioi  Pays. 


FLAT  STONi:  DRAIX. 


\?V4- 


meadows  than  tiles,  for  the  reasons  tliat  they  cam"  more  water,  are 
not  so  easily  clioked,  as  there  are  many  channels,  and  will  not  get 
_  stopped  by   the  settling  of  the  soft  ground,  as  with 

tile;  for  a  tile  that  settles  in  a  soft  place,  stops  and 
i-uins  the  whole  drain.  Where  tiles  are  used  in  soft 
ground,  they  should  always  be  laid  upon  hemlock 
boards,  as  this  timber  is  almost  imperishable  in  such  a 
place,  or  any  other  where  it  is  always  wet.  Some- 
tiroes  cheap  drains  of  wood  may  be  very  useful  for 
wet  ground.  Such  drains  are  generally  made  triangu- 
lar, of  three  boards,  nailed  edge  to  edge.  A  better  wax 
is  to  put  the  cover  on  top  of  the  drain  tube  cross- 
\nse,  cutting  the  lumber  into  short  jDieces;  this  gives 
more  openings  for  the  v.'ater  to  flow  into  the  pipes, 
and  also  makes  them  sti-onger.  "Where  roads  cross  a  drain  of  this 
kind,  it  is  safer  to  make  tlicin  in  tlii?;  way.  mv\  .ilso  tn  lay  a  ]'lank 

upon    the    drain  to  ,^ ^-^    , , ^ ,. 

distribute  the  ]5r(s-  ~   r  "  / 

sure.  Every  precau- 
tion should  be  taken 
to  have  the  work  nl 
draining  done  right, 
because  it  is  costly, 
and  is  a  difficult  and 
particular  work,  and, 
if  one  little  blunder 
is  made,  everything 

maybe  spoiled;  for  a  noiNn  .■ijoM:  drmns. 

ilraiii  is  like  a  chain  which  has  a  link  broken,  and  even  woi-se;  for  if  one 
part  of  a  drain  is  out  of  order,  the  whole  drain  may  be  useless,  while 
part  of  a  broken  chain  may  be  as  good  as  ever.     For  this  reason, 

when  one  is  about  to 
K'-^""^^f!r^^^rT''" y^'"''''-'^^  lay  out  considerable 
money  in  a  job  of  drain- 
ing, it  would  always  be 
safe  to  have  the  ad- 
vice and  assistance  of 
an  expert,  whose  e.xperience  might  and  would  often  be  of  great 
value. 

Obsei-vation  wells  are  necessary  to  be  made  about  every  quarter  of 
a  mile  in  a  drain.  This  is  a  small  well  or  dee])  box.  let  down  two 
feet  below  the  drain,  and  into  which  one  drain  discharges,  while  an- 
other takes  the  water.      Those  are  necessaiy  in  every  main  drain, 


Precatttions  in  Draining.  25 

where  the  smaller  drains  enter.  Their  purpose  is  to  catch  sediment 
■which  would  otherwise  obstruct  the  drains,  and  also  to  watch  the 
working  of  the  drain  occasionally,  to  obsei-ve  if  it  is  in  good  order. 
When  sediment  gathers  in  these  wells,  it  is  easy  to  clean  them  out. 
This  should  be  done  before  it  is  really  necessary,  or  it  will  be  apt  to 
be  left  untU  too  late. 

Every  complete  set  of  drains  should  be  laid  out  on  a  systematic 
j)lan.  The  courses  of  the  drains  should  be  marked  by  permanent 
posts  set  in  the  fences  ;  the  lines  of  the  observation  wells  should  be 
marked  by  other  j^osts,  so  that  the  exact  sjDot  where  each  drain 
begins  and  ends,  and  where  each  well  is  placed,  may  be  found  with- 
out trouble.  The  wells  should  be  covered  with  flat  stones,  a  foot  be- 
neath the  surface,  so  that  the  cover  may  not  be  disturbed.  As  com- 
plete drainage  costs  about  $50  an  acre,  it  is  wise  to  take  every  pos- 
sible jjrecaution  against  any  waste  of  this  money,  to  the  smallest 
extent. 


26  How  THK  Fahm  Pays. 


CH.^PTER  n. 


MAXTRES  AND  THEIR  MODES  OF  APPLICATION. 

("Manures  ami  Their  Modes  of  AppliCfltion  "  is  the  title  of  aii  e^tsay  pnhliehed  by  Peter 
Henderson  in  ltiti-1.  Like  all  his  otber  essays,  this  was  written  more  to  meet  the  waBt«  of  the 
horticnlturist.  than  the  af^cultnrist.  but  the  uecessilles  of  both  are  so  near  alike  that  we  here 
(rive  it  entire,  followiuf?  which  will  be  tbe  remarks  of  Mr.  Henderson  and  Mr.  (Yozier  on  such 
portions  of  the  essay  as  may  seem  to  require  modification.) 

TiiK  subject  of  manures  is  one  of  the  ffi-eatest  iiiii5oi*taiice  to  every 
operator  iii  the  soil,  whetJier  fjuiiier,  market  jifardener,  florist,  or  such 
as  cultivate  only  for  theii-  own  use,  for  under  few  conditions  can  crops 
be  long  grown  without  the  use  of  feiiilizors.  Although  I  have  ah'eady 
given  generiil  iustnictions  about  fertihzers  in  all  my  works  on  gar- 
dening, yet  I  tind,  fi-om  the  number  of  inquiries  received  fi-om  even 
such  as  have  my  works,  that  the  matter  has  not  been  there  treated 
sufficiently  in  detail  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  varied  conditions  under 
which  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  fertilizers  arises.  The  comp;u-ative 
viilue  of  maniu'es  must  be  regulated  by  the  cost.  If  rotted  sta1>le 
manure,  whether  fi-om  horses  or  cows,  can  be  delivered  on  the  ground 
at  $:5  per  ton,  it  is  about  as  valuable,  for  fertilizing  purjioses,  as  Pei-u- 
viau  guano  at  $G5  per  ton,  or  j)ure  bone  dust  at  $40  per  ton.  It  is 
better  than  either  of  these,  or  any  other  concentrated  fertihzer,  from 
the  fact  of  its  mechanicid  action  on  the  land — that  is,  its  effect,  from  its 
light,  porous  nature,  in  aerating  and  pulverizing  the  soil.  Guano, 
bone  dust,  or  other  fine  commercial  fertilizers,  act  only  as  such,  with- 
out in  any  way  assisting  to  improve  what  may  be  called  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil. 

All  experienced  cultivators  know  that  the  fii-st  year  that  land  is 
broken  up  fi-oiu  sod,  if  proper  cultiu'e  has  been  given,  by  thorough 
plowng  and  ban-owing  (provided  the  land  is  cb'ained  ai'titicially  or 
naturally,  so  as  to  be  free  fi-om  water,  audreheve  it  from  "sourness"), 
the  land  is  in  better  condition  for  any  crop  than  land  that  has  been 
continuously  cropped  without  a  rest.  1  he  miu'ket  gardeners  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York  are  now  so  well  convinced  of  this,  that  when 
twenty  acres  are  under  cultivation,  at  least  live  acres  are  continujdly 
kept  in  grain,  clover  or  grass,  to  be  broken  up  successively,  everj' 
second  or  tliird  year,  so  as  to  get  the  land  in  the  condition  that 
nothing  else  but  rotted,  i^ulvcrized  sod  will  accomplish.  This  is  done 
in  cases  where  land  is  as  valuable  as  $500  per  acre,  experience  ha\ing 


Commercial  Fertilizers.  27 

proved  that  'with  one-quarter  of  the  land  "resting  under  grass    more 
profit  can  be  got  than  if  the  whole  were  under  cultui-e. 

"WTien  the  rotation,  by  j)laciug  a  portion  of  the  laud  under  grass, 
cannot  be  done,  then  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  use  stable  mauiu-e, 
at  least  to  some  extent,  if  the  best  results  are  desired,  for  continuous 
cropping  of  the  soil.  "Where  concentrated  fertilizers  only  are  used, 
they  will  not  continue  to  give  satisfactory  results  after  the  grass  roots 
or  other  organic  matter  have  passed  fi-om  the  soil,  idl  of  which  will 
usually  be  entirely  gone  by  the  third  cr  fovu'th  year  after  breaking  up. 
I  have  long  held  the  opinion,  that  the  idea  of  lands  having  been  per- 
manently exhausted  by  tobacco  or  other  crops,  is  a  fallacy.  What 
gives  rise  to  this  behef,  I  think,  is  the  fact  that,  when  lauds  ai-e  tii-st 
broken  up  from  tlie  forest  or  meadow  lands,  for  three  or  four  years 
the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  the  roots  of  grasses,  leaves,  etc.,  not 
only  serves  to  feed  the  crops,  but  it  keeps  the  soil  iu  a  better  state 
of  jjulverization,  or  what  might  be  called  aerated  condition,  than  when, 
in  the  coui'se  of  cropping  for  a  few  years,  it  has  passed  away.  Stable 
manure  best  supplies  this  want;  but  on  farm  lands  away  from  towns, 
it  is  not  often  that  enough  can  be  obtained  to  have  any  appreciable 
etfect  on  the  soil,  and  hence  artificial  fertilizers  are  resorted  to,  which 
often  fad,  not  from  any  fault  in  themselves,  but  from  the  fact  that, 
exerting  Uttle  mechanical  influence  on  the  land,  it  becomes  compacted 
or  sodden,  the  air  cannot  get  to  the  roots,  and  hence  failure  or  paiiial 
failure  of  crop. 

Thus  we  see  that  to  have  the  best  residts  fi-oiu  commercial  fer- 
tihzers.  it  is  of  great  importance  to  have  the  land  'rested"  by  a  crop 
of  grain  or  grass  every  three  or  four  years. 

The  best  known  fertilizers  of  commerce  are  PeiTivian  guano  and 
bone  dust,  though  thei'e  are  numbers  of  others,  such  as  fish 
guano,  dry  blood  fertilizer,  blood  and  bone  fertilizer,  with  the 
various  brands  of  superphosphates,  all  of  more  or  less  value  for  fer- 
tdizing  jjui'poses  It  is  useless  to  go  over  the  list,  and  we  T\nll  con- 
fine ourselves  to  the  relative  merits  of  pure  Peruvian  guano  and  puie 
bone  dust.  Guano,  at  $(i.5  j^er  ton,  we  consider  relatively  equal  in 
value  to  bone  dust  at  $40  per  ton,  for  in  the  lower  jjriced  article  we 
find  v>'e  have  to  increase  the  quantity  to  produce  the  same  result. 
Whatever  kind  of  concentrated  fertilizer  is  used,  we  find  it  well 
repays  the  labor  to  prepare  it  in  the  following  manner  before  it  is 
used  on  the  land  : 

To  every  bushel  of  guano  or  bone  dust  add  three  bushels  of  either 
leaf  mould  (fi'om  the  woods),  well  p)ulveiized  dry  muck,  sweepings 
fi-om  a  paved  street,  stable  manure  so  rotted  as  to  be  like  pulverized 
muck,  or,  if  neither  of  these  can  be  obtained,  anj-  loamy  soil  will  do ; 


28  Ht)w  THK  Farm  Pays. 

but  iu  every  ease  the  material  to  mix  the  fertilizei-s  with  must  be 
fuirly  tirv  and  never  in  a  condition  of  mud;  tbemeuuiiig  of  the  oj)era- 
tiou  being,  that  the  material  used  is  to  act  as  a  temporary  absorbent 
for  the  fertilizer.  The  comjjost  must  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  if 
guano  is  used,  it  being  sometimes  lumpy,  it  must  be  broken  iij)  to 
dust  before  being  mixed  with  the  absorbent. 

The  main  object  of  this  operation  is  for  the  better  sejiai-atiou  and 
division  of  the  fertilizer,  so  that  when  apphed  to  the  soil  it  can  be 
more  readily  distributed.  Our  experiments  have  repeatedly  shown 
that  this  method  of  using  concentrated  fertilizers  materially  increases 
their  value,  jirobably  twenty  per  cent.  The  mixing  shoidd  be  done 
a  few  mouths  previous  to  sprmg,  and  it  should,  after  being  mixed, 
be  packed  away  in  ban-els,  and  kejjt  iu  some  dry  shed  or  cellai'  until 
wanted  for  use.  Thus  mixed,  it  is  i)articularly  beneficial  on  lawns  or 
other  gi'ass  lands.  The  quantity  of  concentrated  fertihzer  to  be  used 
is  often  perplexing  to  beginners.  We  give  the  foUowiug  as  the  best 
rales  we  know,  all  derived  fi'om  our  own  practice  in  growing  fruits, 
flowers  and  vegetables. 

Taking  guano  as  a  basis,  we  would  recommend  for  all  vegetable  or 
fruit  crops,  if  earliuess  and  good  quality  ai'e  desired,  the  use  of  not 
less  than  1,200  pounds  per  acre  (an  acre  contains  4,840  square  yards, 
and  cultivators  for  private  use  can  easily  estimate  fi-om  this  the 
quantity  they  reijuire  for  any  area),  mixed  with  two  tons  of  either  of 
the  materials  before  recommended.  Of  bone  dust  about  one  ton  per 
acre  should  be  used,  mixed  with  thi'ee  tons  of  soil  or  the  other 
materials  named. 

For  market  garden  vegetable  crops,  iu  the  vicinity  of  New  York, 
this  quantity  of  guano  or  bone  dust  is  han-owed  in  after  twenty-five 
or  thirty  tons  of  stable  maiuire  have  first  been  ploweil  in;  sj  that  the 
actual  cost  of  manuring  each  acre  is  uot  le.ss  thau  $100,  and  often  $150. 

"\Mien  fertilizers  are  used  alone,  ■without  being  mixed  with  the  ab- 
sorl)ent,  they  should  be  sown  ou  the  soil  after  plowing  or  digging, 
about  thick  enough  to  just  color  the  surface,  or  about  as  thick  as 
sand  or  sawdust  is  sown  on  a  floor,  and  then  thoroughly  haiTowed  iu, 
if  plowed,  or,  if  dug,  chopped  in  with  a  rake.  This  quantity  is  used 
broadcast  by  sowing  on  the  ground  after  plowing,  and  deeply  and 
thoroughly  harrowing  iu,  or,  if  in  small  gju-dens,  forked  in  lightly 
with  the  prongs  of  a  garden  fork  or  long-toothed  steel  rake.  'When 
apphed  in  hills  or  tlrOls,  from  100  to  300  pounds  should  be  used  to 
the  acre,  according  to  the  distance  of  these  ai>art,  mixing  with  soil, 
etc.,  as  already  directed. 

When  well  rotted  stable  manure  is  jirocurable  at  a  cost  uot  to 
exceed  $;?  per  ton,  delivered  on  the  ground,  whether  from  horses  or 


Night  Soil,  H\i.t,  Muck.  29 

cows,  it  is  preferable  to  a,nj  concentrated  fertilizer.  Rotted  stable 
manure,  to  produce  fuU  crops,  should  be  sjiread  on  the  ground  not 
less  than  three  inches  thick  (our  market  gardeners  use  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five  tons  of  well  rotted  stable  manure  jjer  acre  when  no  con- 
centrated fertilize)'  is  used),  and  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
soil  by  plowing  or  spading.  The  refuse  hops  from  breweries  form  an 
excellent  fertilizer,  at  least  one-half  more  valuable,  liulk  for  bulk,  than 
stable  manure.  Other  excellent  fertilizers  are  obtained  fi-om  the 
scrapings  or  shavings  from  horn  or  v/h;debone  manufactories.  The 
best  way  to  make  these  quickly  available  is  to  compost  them  with 
hot  manure,  in  the  proportion  of  one  ton  of  refuse  horn  or  whalebone 
with  fifteen  tons  of  manure.  The  heated  manure  extracts  the  oil, 
which  is  intermingled  with  the  whole. 

The  manure  from  the  chicken  or  pigeon  house  is  very  valuable,  and 
when  composted  as  directed  for  bone  dust  and  guano,  has  at  least 
one-thii-d  their  value.  Castor  oil  pomace  is  also  valuable  in  about 
the  same  proportion. 

Foudi'ette  is  the  name  given  to  a  commercial  fertilizer,  the  composi- 
tion of  which  is  night  soil,  and  dried  swamp  muck  or  charcoal  dust 
as  an  absorbent.  It  is  sold  at  about  $12  to  $15  per  ton,  and  at  that 
price  may  be  ec^ual  in  value,  if  too  much  of  the  absorbing  material  is 
not  used,  to  bone  dust  at  $-10  per  ton. 

In  my  early  experience  as  a  market  gardener,  I  used  large  quan- 
tities of  night  soil  for  vegetable  crops  with  the  very  best  results.  It 
was  mixed  with  stable  manure  at  the  rate  of  about  one  ton  of  night 
soil  to  fifteen  tons  of  stable  manure,  and  put  on  the  land,  so  mixed, 
at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  tons  per  acre.  In  the  absence  of  stable 
manure,  dry  soil,  charcoal  dust,  sawdust,  or  any  material  that  will 
absorb  it,  wiU  do.  Thus  mixed,  if  equal  quantities  of  each  have  l)een 
used,  ten  tons  may  be  used  per  acre,  if  plowed  in  ;  if  sowed  on  top, 
to  be  haiTowed  in,  say  five  tons. 

Salt  has  little  or  no  value  as  a  fertilizer,  excejit  as  a  medium  of 
absorbing  moisture  ;  for  experience  shows  that  soils  impregnated  by 
saline  matter  are  no  more  fertile  than  those  inland,  out  of  the  reach 
of  such  an  atmosphere. 

JIuct  is  the  name  given  to  a  deposit  usually  largely  composed  of 
vegetable  matter,  found  in  swamps  or  in  hollows  in  forest  lands.  Of 
itself  it  has  usually  but  Httle  fertilizing  property,  but  from  its  porous 
nature,  when  dry,  it  is  one  of  the  best  materials  to  use  to  mix 
with  other  manures  as  an  absorbent.  It  can  be  used  to  great  ad- 
vantage if  dug  out  in  winter  and  piled  up  in  narrow  ridges,  so  that 
it  can  be  partly  dried  and  "sweetened"  in  summer.  Thus  dry,  if 
mixed  with  stable  manure,  or,  better  vet,  thro\vn  in  layers  three  or  four 


30  How  THE  Farm  Pavs. 

inches  thick  in  the  cattle  or  hog  yard,  where  it  can  be  trodden  dowu 
and  amalgamated  with  the  manure,  the  value  of  the  manure  thus 
treated  wUl  be  neai-ly  doubled. 

In  reply  to  questions  that  I  receive  by  the  hundred  each  season,  a.sking 
whether  or  not  it  is  worth  while  to  use  th^  so-call;d  special  fertilizers 
claimed  to  be  suited  to  the  wants  of  particulai-  plants,  such  as  the 
"Potato  Fertilizer,"  "Cabbage  Fertilizer,"  '"Strawberry  Fertilizer," 
"Rose  FertULzer,"  etc.,  I  can  only  give  this  general  answer,  that  while 
these  manures  may  suit  the  plants  they  are  claime.l  toba  "  special "  for. 
I  have  no  doubt  that  either  one  would  suit  equally  well  for  the  others, 
or,  if  all  were  mixed  together,  the  mixtui-e  would  be  found  to  answer 
the  purpose  for  each  kind  of  crop,  just  as  well  as  if  kept  separate  and 
applied  to  the  crop  it  was  named  for.  These  hair-sphtting  dis- 
tinctions are  not  recognized  to  be  of  any  value  by  one  practical  farmer 
or  gardener  in  every  hundred ;  for  a  Httle  expeiience  soon  shows  that 
pure  bone  dust  or  well  rotted  stable  manure  answers  for  a/l  crops 
alike,  no  matter  what  they  are.  These  special  fertilizers  for  special 
crojis  ai-e  gi-adually  increasing  in  number,  so  that  some  dealers  now 
ofler  fifty  kinds,  different  brands  being  offered  for  plants  belonging 
to  the  same  family.  There  is  an  ignorant  assumption  in  this,  and  any 
cultivator  of  ordinary  intelligence  cannot  fail  to  see  that  the  motive 
in  so  doing  is  to  stiike  as  broad  a  swath  as  possible,  so  that  a  lai'ger 
number  of  customers  may  be  reached. 

One  of  my  neighbors  called  the  other  day,  and  infoimed  me  that 
his  lettuce  crop,  in  his  green-house,  was  faihng,  and  asked  me  what  I 
thought  of  the  lettuce  fertilizer  that  was  offered  in  a  circular  that  con- 
tained some  lifty  other  '■sjsecials. "  An  inquiiy  develoijed  the  fact, 
that  he  had  been  keeping  his  lettuce  crop  at  a  night  temperature  of 
sixty-five  degi'ees  in  January,  so  that  there  was  just  about  as  much 
chance  of  the  special  lettuce  fertilizer  helping  the  crop,  as  there  would 
be  of  giving  hesilth  to  a  man  by  feeding  liim  beef-steak  in  the  last 
stages  of  consumption.  I  merely  mention  this  incident  to  show 
how,  and  in  what  manner,  the  sellers  of  these  special  fertilizers 
obtain  customei-s. 

Q.  Have  you  had  any  experience,  llr.  Crozier,  with  these  so-called 
special  feiiilizers  to  which  I  refer  in  the  preceding  article,  and  if  so, 
what  opinion  do  you  hold  in  regard  to  them  ?  I  noticed  in  looking 
at  your  crop  of  fodder  corn,  which  you  showed  me  yesterday,  and 
wliich  you  said  was  sown  about  five  weeks  ago,  that  the  portion  whereon 
you  hai  used  the  special  corn  fertilizer,  pui'e  and  simple,  has  had 
to  lower  its  Hag  to  that  ])ortion  of  the  field  which  was  manvu'ed  with 
stable  manure  at  a  cost  but  little  more  per  acre,  the  latter  ah-eady 
towering  over  a  foot  above  that  paii  of  the  field  on  which  you  used 


Special  Fertilizers.  31 

the  "special"  fertilizer,  aud  the  diffei-euce  being  so  marked  as  to 
appear  like  separate  sowings. 

A.  In  several  experiments  that  I  have  carefully  made,  with  a  view 
to  ascertain  if  there  was  any  foundation  for  the  claims  now  so 
commonly  made  for  special  fertilizers,  in  no  single  instance  have  I 
found  anj'  verification  of  these  claims.  For  example,  I  have  tried 
them  on  potatoes,  com,  rye,  barley,  mangels  and  tiu'nips,  applying  a 
special  kind  of  manure  on  each,  at  the  same  time  using  one  of  the 
specials  on  all  the  crops  with  the  same  results  as  obtained  fi-om  each 
of  the  different  specials.  I  have  no  doubt  that  had  I  mixed  them  all 
together,  and  apjilied  the  mixture  to  each  sjieeial  crop,  the  results 
would  in  all  probability  have  been  the  same.  The  only  difference  is 
that  we  pay  two  or  thi-ee  doUars  jDer  ton  more  when  we  get  the 
special  name.  These  special  fertilizers  for  special  crops  may  do  very 
well  for  gentlemen  farmers,  who  can  afl'ord  to  jilay  at  the  business; 
but  we,  who  have  to  make  our  bread  and  butter  from  the  soU,  had 
better  let  them  alone.  One  of  the  best  fertilizers,  compared  with  its 
cost,  I  have  ever  tried,  was  sent  me  last  season  under  the  name  of 
"  rotten  bone,"  price  $1G  per  ton.  I  was  solicited  to  try  it  by  a  gentle- 
man who  was  placing  this  aiiiele  on  the  market  and  who  made 
very  strong  claims  for  it.  I  ^vl•ote  him,  saying  that  if  liis  manure  was 
■what  he  stated  it  to  be,  he  might  send  me  two  or  three  tons.  He  sent  me 
three  tons,  which  I  applied,  and  the  results,  as  I  wi-ite  (July  10th), 
on  mangels,  jsotatoes,  turnips  aud  fodder  corn,  seem  to  indicate  that  it 
was  a  more  valuable  fertilizer  than  any  that  I  have  yet  used.  It  was 
put  on  broadcast,  and  harrowed  in  thoroughly  with  the  Acme  harrow, 
at  the  rate  of  1,500  pounds  per  acre,  which  at  $16  per  ton  you  will 
see  was  an  exceedingly  cheap  fertilizer.  Whether  it  wUl  hold  out  for 
the  following  season  I  cannot  tell,  but  will  give  it  a  further  trial. 

Q.  Into  what  shape  was  it  broken  up? 

A.  It  came  in  pieces  about  the  size  of  peas,  and  contained  a  kind  of 
greasy  substance  that,  when  taking  it  in  your  hand,  would  leave  a 
mark. 

Q.  Is  that  article  in  commerce,  or  was  it  only  by  a  special  chance 
that  you  got  it? 

A.  I  thinli  it  is  in  commerce,  as  I  had  recently  a  letter  from  the 
jjarty  fi'om  whom  I  got  it  asking  how  it  had  turned  out,  as  he  had 
more  to  dispose  of.  I  do  not  know  whether  it  is  a  part  of  the  refuse 
fi"om  glue  factories  or  not,  but  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  it  is. 

(Mr.  H.)  You  are  coiTect  in  this,  as  I  had  a  sample  of  a  similai' 
substance,  although  it  came  to  me  without  name  from  some  glue 
manufactorj-  in  Massachusetts.  I  gave  it  a  thorough  trial  on  grass 
as  a  top  dressing  about  the  first  of  June.     I  examined  the  result 


32  How  THK  Farm  Pats. 

about  tliirty  day.s  after  aud  the  jfrass  had  developed  to  double  the 
leujjth  on  the  area  where  I  had  tried  it.  To  make  the  test  com- 
parative I  sowed  pure  bone  dust  along-side  of  it,  and  found  that  there 
was  no  apparent  difference  between  the  one  and  other,  except  that 
this  cost  $1()  i)er  ton  and  bone  dust  costs  $45.  If  it  can  be  Dought 
at  $1G  per  ton  and  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities,  it  ■nill 
no  doubt  be  of  great  value  wherever  fertilizers  are  needed. 

How  do  you  explain  the  beneficial  results  of  this  bone  fertilizer 
as  compared  with  special  fertilizers? 

(Mr.  C. )  In  this  way.  A  poor  soil  mostly  needs  three  substances — 
nitrogen,  jiotash  and  i)hosphoric  acid.  But  few  soils  are  so  i)oor  as  to 
need  all  these.  Potash  is  very  abundant  in  nature,  and  it  is  phosphoric 
acid  that  is  usually  most  deficient.  A  special  fertilizer  contains  all 
these  three  substances  and  some  othera.  If  the  soil  only  needs  one, 
a  farmer  who  Iniys  a  special  fertilizer  i^ays  for  more  than  he  needs. 
If  he  needs  only  phosphoric  acid  he  can  get  that  in  this  cheap  bone 
manure.  It  is  evident  that  my  soil  needs  phosphoric  acid  and  shows 
it  by  the  effect  of  this  bone,  which  is  pretty  nearly  all  phosi^hate  of 
lime.  Then,  you  see,  for  $12  I  get  1,500  lbs.  of  this  fertilizer,  which  I 
need,  while  for  as  much  special  fertilizer  I  should  pay  $37.50  and 
pay  money  for  what  I  do  not  want.  There  are  glue  factories  all  over 
the  coimtry,  the  refuse  of  which  is  most  valuaVile,  and  fai'mers  should 
by  no  means  neglect  the  opportunity  of  avaiUng  themselves  of  it. 

I  am  so  impressed  with  its  value  as  a  fertilizer  that  I  in- 
tend at  once  ordering  forty  tons  of  it,  and  will  apply  it  as  a  top  dress- 
ing on  my  grass  lands  the  coming  spring,  at  the  rate  of  about  1,000 
pounds  per  acre. 

(Mr.  H.)  In  my  article  on  manures,  ]\Ir.  Crozier,  I  made  no  allusion 
to  lime  or  mai'l,  which  I  have  always  held  to  have  no  fertilLziug  proji- 
erties  of  themselves,  except  inasmuch  as  they  act  to  correct  the  acidity 
of  the  soil,  or  to  lighten  heavy  soils,  or  to  give  adhesiveness  to  soils  that 
are  too  Ught.  In  fact,  I  believe  they  ai'e  beneficial  for  theu-  mechanical 
effects  on  almost  everj'  soil,  unless  such  as  are  impregnated  with 
oyster  shell  deposit,  which  is  found  on  lauds  lying  along  the  sea  coast, 
and  in  some  cases  for  a  considerable  distance  inland.  On  such  soils 
there  is  no  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  application  of  Hme,  as  there  is 
usually  sufficient  of  it  suppihed  by  the  disintegration  of  the  shell  deposit. 

(Sh:  C.)  I  would  agree  with  you  so  far  in  saying  that  I  have  never 
found  any  fertilizing  properties  when  hme  was  applied  to  such  crops  as 
mangels  or  potatoes,  but  on  ceresils,  piuticuliu-ly  wheat  or  oats,  I 
have  found  an  application  of  100  bushels  per  acre  of  pure  stone  lime, 
when  composted  with  double  the  amount  of  loam,  to  be  one  of  the 
most  valuable  fertilizers  for  such  crops. 


Necessity  fou  Liberal  Manuring.  33 

Q.  In  what  manner  do  you  ajjjoly  it  ? 

A.  It  should  be  sown  broadcast  after  plowing,  and  then  harrowed 
in — not  jjlowed  under — but  kept  as  near  the  top  of  the  soil  as  pos- 
sible. By  this  means  I  have  received  ten  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre 
more  than  by  using  horse  manure  jjut  on  at  the  rate  of  eight  cords, 
which  is  equal  to  twenty  tons,  to  the  acre. 

(Mr.  H.)  I  would  like  to  remark,  just  here,  in  regard  to  gas  lime, 
that  it  is  useless  and  injurious  to  any  croia  until  the  noxious  gases  in 
it  have  been  expelled  by  long  exposure  to  the  air.  As  this  is  a  matter 
of  years,  it  would  be  well  tor  farmers  to  decline  the  very  liberal  offers 
of  gas  companies,  made  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  what  is  a 
nuisance  to  them. 

Q.  In  my  aa-ticle  on  manures,  Mr.  Crozier,  you  took  exception — 
and  I  think  with  some  reason — -to  my  suggestions  about  using  muck 
by  spreading  it  in  layers  in  the  open  cattle  or  hog  yard.  Will  you 
state  what  has  been  your  experience  with  dried  muck  or  other  simi- 
lar absorbents  ? 

A.  My  practice  with  such  absorbents  has  been  to  use  them  for 
bedding  in  the  cow  stables  and  box  stalls  in  quantity  sufficient  to 
absorb  all  the  mine,  which  I  consider  to  be  more  valuable  than  the 
solid  manm-e.  I  cart  this  mixed  manure  direct  fi-om  the  cow  stables 
and  sheds  to  the  compost  heap  in  the  field,  which  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  is  thoroughly  turned  over  and  broken  up  fine  and  made  ready 
to  be  spi'ead  on  the  land  after  plowing,  when,  as  I  have  before  said, 
it  is  harrowed  and  then  plowed  in  lightly.  So  much  am  I  impressed 
with  the  necessity  of  heavy  maniuing,  that,  contrary  to  the  usual  prac- 
tice of  farmers  in  my  neighborhood,  I  not  only  use  all  the  straw  and 
hay  my  own  farm  jsroduces,  but  buy  besides  an  amount  nearly  equal 
to  what  I  produce.  The  result  is,  and  I  trust  I  may  say  so  without 
any  feeling  of  egotism,  that  my  crops  pay  me,  acre  for  acre,  much 
better  than  any  of  my  neighbors  who  do  not  follow  this  same  practice. 

(Mr.  H. )  I  entirely  agree  with  you  in  your  opinion  that  fai'ming 
without  sufficient  manvuing  can  never  be  made  so  profitable  as  when 
manure  is  freely  applied.  I  have  had  no  experience  whatever  in  farm- 
ing, strictly  speaking,  but  as  is  well  known,  I  have  had  Large  experience 
as  a  market  gardener  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  and  I  have  found 
that  when  any  man  was  foolish  enough  to  attempt  to  cultivate  ten  acres 
with  only  a  supply  of  manure  enough  for  Ave,  he  rarely  made  money. 
I  have  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  same  rule  is  equally  applicable, 
when  the  farmer  attemjjts  to  cultivate  100  acres  while  only  able  to 
prociu-e  fertilizers  enough  for  fifty. 

(Mr.  C. )  Many  farmers  think  and  believe  they  have  not  the  means 
to  improve  their  lands  or  manure  them  liberally;  but  I  say  we  nearly  all 


34  How  THK  Fahm  Pays. 

have  tlie  means,  to  some  extent,  for  in  our  many  idle  hours  we 
could  gather  sods  from  the  roadside  and  leaves  from  the  woods 
and  put  them  in  heaps  until  needed  for  bedding  for  cattle  (over  the 
absorbent  material  of  course  is  placed  a  lieavy  bed  of  straw),  and  these 
when  composted  and  turned  over  a  few  times  would  make  the  most  valu- 
able of  manures  for  the  average  crops  of  the  farm.  If  it  were  not  rich 
enough  for  certain  crops,  a  mixture  of  bone  or  guano  at  the  rate  of 
100  to  200  lbs.  per  acre  would  make  it  one  of  the  very  best  fertilizers, 
as,  from  the  nature  of  such  a  comjiost,  its  value  will  be  retained  in 
the  land  for  years. 

Q.  Plaster  is  by  some  considered  a  valuable  fertilizer.  What  expe- 
rience have  you  had  with  it  ? 

A.  I  have  used  plaster  to  some  extent.  It  is  one  of  those  fertilizers 
which  have  a  remarkable  eft'ect  upon  some  soils,  while  in  other  places 
it  has  no  effect  at  all.  WTiere  the  soils  are  benefited  by  it,  it  is  of 
course  advisable  to  use  it.  Its  greatest  effect  is  upon  clover,  and 
where  clover  is  used  as  a  means  of  improving  land,  plaster  is  indis- 
pensable. It  is  one  of  the  cheapest  of  all  fertilizers,  and  should  by 
all  means  be  used  where  it  is  beneficial;  this  of  course  is  to  be  proved 
by  a  test.     It  is  sown  on  clover  grass  or  corn  when  tlie  plants  are  young. 

Q.  In  the  foregoing  article  I  have  said  siilt  has  little  value  as  a  fer- 
tilizer excepting  so  far  as  it  absorbs  moisture,  in  the  ■\'icinity  of  the 
ocean,  where  jierhapa  sufficient  salt  is  brought  on  to  the  laud  by  the 
sea  fogs  and  rains.    What  has  been  your  experience  in  this  direction? 

A.  I  have  been  in  the  habit  of  using  GOO  lbs.  to  the  acre  on  my 
mangel  crop,  and  find  it  useful,  and  indeed  necessary.  I  know  wheat 
growers  who  use  it  on  this  crop  for  the  jjurpose  of  preventing  rust, 
stiffening  the  straw  and  improving  the  appeai'ance  and  quality  of  the 
gi'ain,  which  I  know  it  does.  How  it  does  this  I  don't  pretend  to 
explain.     I  only  mention  the  facts  in  my  experience. 

(Mr.  H.)  I  know  market  gardeners  in  inland  districts  use  salt  hber- 
all.y  upon  asparagus,  thinking  it  useful  for  that  crop.  The  iiile  as  to 
quantity  is  to  put  on  as  nmcdi  as  will  give  the  ground  the  appearance 
of  a  sanded  floor.  I  might  say  incidentally  that  salt  is  an  excellent 
means  of  clearing  gravel  walks  of  grass  and  weeds,  as  when  liberally 
used  it  is  fatal  to  all  sorts  of  vegetation. 

Q.  I  believe  you  have  used  wood  aslies  very  freely  as  a  fertilizer. 
What  results  have  yo\i  observed  fi-om  their  use  on  different  crops? 

A.  I  liave  used  wood  ashes  very  freely.  But  it  is  necessaiy  to 
mention  that  the  wood  ashes  that  are  in  the  market  have  been  leached 
for  making  potash,  and  of  coui-se  are  different  fi-om  unleached  or 
fresh  ashes.  As  these  cannot  be  purchased  to  any  extent,  I  refer  only 
to  the  leached  ashes  which  are  brought  to  market  in  boat  loads  or  car 


Gkeen  Manuring.  35 

loads.  I  have  used  these  on  ffrass  lands,  with  great  benefit,  at  the 
rate  of  fifty  to  one  hundi-ed  bushels  to  the  acre.  As  the  ashes  stay 
in  the  soil  for  many  years,  it  is  best  in  my  opinion  to  put  them  on 
grass,  and  when  the  sod  is  broken  up,  the  other  crops  get  the  benefit 
from  them.  I  think  they  are  a  valuable  fertilizer  for  farmers  who  are 
able  to  procure  them  at  a  reasonable  jjrice.  In  boat  or  car  loads  near 
the  Citj-  of  New  York,  they  sell  for  eighteen  to  twenty  cents  a  bushel. 
(Mr.  H.)  I  am  sui-e  you  are  right.  But  I  would  go  a  little  further, 
and  say  that  as  wood  ashes  contain  all  the  substance  of  the  wood, 
which  of  course  is  a  vegetable  product  that  has  been  taken  from  the 
mineral  part  of  the  soil,  ever>i;hing  contained  in  them  is  of  course 
necessary  to  a  growing  plant  and  therefore  there  is  no  waste  whatever 
in  them.  Every  part  of  them  is  valuable  and  they  are  necessarily 
useful  for  any  or  all  crops.  I  don't  know  of  any  plant  or  crop  to 
which  they  would  not  be  useful.  The  question  often  comes  up,  if  coal 
ashes  are  not  also  useful.  But  coal  is  a  mineral  and  not  a  vegetable, 
and  coal  ashes  do  not  therefore  contain  valuable  fertihzing  property 
to  any  considerable  extent.  I  consider  their  only  use  to  be  mechan- 
ical, in  loosening  heavy  soils,  and  in  compacting  light  soils. 

GREEN  MANURING. 

(Mr.  C. )  The  practice  of  growing  crops  for  the  purpose  of  plowing 
them  under  to  fertilize  the  soil,  is  one  that  can  often  be  turned  to 
very  great  advantage.  When  a  farmer  has  unforiunately  become 
possessed  of  a  poor  farm,  there  is  no  better  way  of  cheaply  improving 
it  than  this.  To  procure  an  adequate  supply  of  manui-e  is  rarely 
possible,  and  at  the  best  is  a  very  costly  process.  But  a  crop  that 
may  be  easily  grown  in  a  few  weeks,  and  then  turned  under,  may 
fui-nish  to  the  soil  as  much  fertilizing  matter  as  eight  or  ten  tons  of 
manure ;  and  the  process  may  often  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  in 
one  year.  For  instance,  if  land  is  plowed  in  October  and  sown  to 
rye,  the  lye  may  be  tiu-ned  under  in  May  or  June,  and  com  may  be 
planted.  This  will  be  in  full  growth  early  in  August,  when  it  may  also 
be  turned  under,  fiu-nishing  ten  or  twelve  tons  more  of  valuable  mat- 
ter. In  turning  under  so  tall  a  crop  as  corn  or  rye  the  plow  should 
be  run  across  the  rows,  and  a  heavy  chain  looped  from  the  plow  beam, 
just  ahead  of  the  standard,  to  the  land  side  end  of  the  inner  whiffle- 
tree.  This  loop  drags  in  the  furrow,  so  as  to  catch  the  falling  com 
or  rye,  and  pulls  it  down  and  into  the  fuiTOW  so  that  the  soil  covers 
it.  To  prevent  the  distiu-bance  of  the  gi-een  manure  by  the  harrow 
after  this,  tlie  gi'ound  should  be  rolled  after  the  plowing,  and  then 
han-owed  with  the  smoothing  or  brush  haiTOW,  or  worked  with  the 


36  How  THK  Fakm  Pays. 

Acme  harrow.  It  may  then  be  sown  with  rye,  and  with  clover  in 
the  spring;  am]  after  the  clover  has  been  cut  for  hay,  and  the  second 
crop  plowed  ii',  the  laud  may  be  brought  under  a  regular  course  of 
rotation  as  described  in  Chapter  IV.  Buckwheat  is  frequently  used 
for  this  pmijose,  and  is  very  valuable,  as  the  seed  costs  but  little,  and 
a  crop  may  be  sown  in  May  and  plowed  in  early  in  July,  when  a  second 
crop  may  be  sown,  and  this  plowed  in,  and  the  ground  fitted  for  a 
crop  of  rye  as  before  mentioned.  When  buckwheat  is  thus  used,  it 
will  be  advisable  to  give  a  di-essing  of  lime  on  the  ground  after  the 
second  crop  is  plowed  under,  as  this  will  decompose  the  gi'een  matter 
and  greatly  help  the  growth  of  the  rye. 

Clover  is  a  very  valuable  gi-een  manuring  crop,  and  especially  the 
large  variety  known  as  the  mammoth  or  pea  vine  clover,  which 
often  makes  a  stem  four  or  five  feet  long,  and  on  poor  soils  produces 
considerably  more  herbage  than  the  common  red  kind.  But  as  a 
soil  that  will  produce  a  sufiicient  jield  of  clover,  to  be  of  much  value 
for  plowing  in,  is  past  the  stage  when  it  will  be  profitable  to  grow 
crops  solely  for  mauurial  purposes,  clover  is  of  more  value  for  main- 
taining land  in  good  condition  than  for  starting  a  course  of  improve- 
ment. Growing  clover,  however,  to  be  jDlowed  under  instead  of  manui'e, 
may  be  made  of  the  utmost  value  for  the  fertilizing  of  hilly  land,  or 
for  fields  that  are  distant  from  the  homestead,  and  which  cannot  be 
conveniently  supplied  with  manure  from  the  barn-yard  on  this  ac- 
count. The  late  Hon.  George  Geddes,  whose  recent  early  death  is 
to  be  much  regretted  for  the  loss  of  an  accomplished  and  successful 
farmer,  practiced  this  method  for  many  years  on  his  farm  with  entire 
success.  He  sowed  the  most  distant  fields  with  clover  along  with 
wheat;  the  clover  gave  a  cro})  of  hay  the  next  year;  it  was  then 
dressed  liberally  with  plaster,  and  the  next  year  was  plowed  under 
after  being  pastui'ed,  and  wheat  again  sowed.  In  tliis  way,  after  fifty 
years  of  cultivation  by  his  father  and  himself,  the  land  was  kept  suffi- 
ciently rich  to  yield  thu-ty-five  or  forty  bushels  of  wheat  to  tiie  acre 
one  year,  give  a  large  yield  of  hay  the  second  year,  pasture  the  third 
year  and  wheat  again  the  fourth  year,  and  so  on.  Perhaps  no  better 
instance  than  this  can  be  given  of  the  value  of  this  kind  of  manuring 
for  preserving  the  fertility  of  the  land. 

FERTILIZING  LAND  BY  FEEDING. 

Another  method  of  restoring  a  faim  to  a  good  condition,  or  of 
keeping  it  fertile,  is  by  feeding  stock.  This  may  be  made  very  profit- 
able in  skUlful  hands.  Thousands  of  farmers  in  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  New  York  and  Ohio,  and  even  further  west,  where  the  land 


Fertxlizing  by  Feeding  Stock.  37 

is  not  as  rich  as  it  once  was,  and  where  farmers  are  learning  the  value 
of  manure  and  the  advantage  of  good  farming,  practice  a  regular 
system  of  feeding  animals  to  feed  their  land.  They  make  hay,  gi-ow 
corn,  roots,  wheat,  rye,  potatoes,  and  make  butter;  sell  the  grain, 
potatoes  and  butter,  and  feed  hay,  corn  fodder,  roots  and  straw,  and 
even  purchase  feeding  stuffs,  and  buy  lean  stock  in  the  early  fall  to 
consume  all  these.  The  cattle  or  sheej)  are  turned  on  to  the  stubbles 
and  pastures  as  long  as  there  is  good  feeding.  They  are  then  fed 
during  the  winter  on  dry  feed,  and  as  they  become  fat  and  fit  for 
market  are  turned  oif,  so  that  by  the  spring  they  are  all  disjjosed  of. 
A  steer  weighing  1,200  lbs.  and  costing  $40,  is  thus  made  to  weigh 
1,600  lbs.  and  sell  for  $80,  or  even  more ;  because  there  is  not  only  the 
increased  weight  made  for  the  profit,  but  the  increased  value  of  a  fat 
animal  for  every  pound  of  its  weight  over  the  value  of  a  thin  and  un- 
salable one.  The  feed  is  thus  disposed  of  at  a  good  price,  and  there 
is  a  profit  besides  to  pay  for  the  labor.  In  addition,  there  is  a  large 
quantity  of  manvu'e,  which  is  worth  much  more  than  common  barn- 
yard manure  because  of  the  high  feeding  of  the  cattle.  In  a  similar 
way  the  owner  of  poor  land  may  buy  cattle,  and  all  the  fodder  and 
grain,  and  feed  them,  and  make  an  equal  profit  as  the  farmers  above 
mentioned;  because  they  charge  the  animals  with  the  feed  at  market 
price.  There  is  then  the  manure  left  to  go  upon  the  land  and  increase 
the  next  year's  crop,  which  makes  less  purchased  food  necessary.  As 
the  land  improves,  and  the  crops  increase  in  yield,  the  profits  of  the 
business  are  larger.  In  a  few  years  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  buy  fod- 
der, and  the  income  from  the  farm  will  then  be  more  satisfactory,  be- 
cause the  expenses  will  be  lessened  considerably.  In  my  long  ex- 
perience with  different  farms,  and  some  of  them  very  poor  when  I  went 
onto  them,  I  have  found  this  practice  very  successful.  But  cows  are 
more  profitable  to  keep  than  fat  stock,  where  there  is  a  good  market 
for  milk,  and  the  owner  can  make  an  extra  good  article  of  butter. 


38  How  THE  Faum  Pats. 


CHAPTER  m. 

PLOWING,  HAKnOWING   AND  CULTn'ATIXG. 

Q.  As  you  and  your  men,  ^Ir.  Crozier,  have  bad  almost  a  monop- 
oly of  the  prizes  piven  for  plowing  oftered  by  the  ilifferent  faii-s  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York  within  the  jiast  ten  years,  wiU  you  please  state 
what  kind  of  a  plow  you  consider  the  best  fitted  for  general  fiu'm 
work? 

A.  I  used  the  Scotch  plows  up  to  1876,  and  always  with  the  best 
results,  prefeiTing  them  up  to  that  time  to  all  makes  of  American 
plows  that  I  had  tried.  It  was  with  these  plows  that  we  did  the  work 
in  competition  for  the  piizes  oftered  by  the  different  faii-s.  All  our 
competitors  used  plows  of  American  manufacture.  At  the  trial  at 
Mineola,  Queens  Co.,  L.  I.,  in  1872,  where  there  was  over  $300 
offered  in  piizes,  we  had  upwaixls  of  thuiy  comjietitors,  idl  of  whom 
u.sed  American  plows.  In  this  test  every  prize  offered  was  taken  by 
us  with  the  Scotch  plow. 

Q.  Are  Scotch  plows  in  anything  like  general  use  amongst  the 
fanners  in  the  United  States? 

A.  No.  I  have  imported  about  fifty  plows  for  different  farmers. 
I  tliink  that  is  about  all  there  are  in  use. 

Q.  If  they  have  shown  such  superiority  as  at  the  fair  at  Mineola, 
how  do  you  account  for  their  nqt  being  more  generally  in  use? 

A.  One  objec-tiou  is  tlu  ir  cost,  and  their  great  weight  also  is  an 
objection  against  them  among  those  unaccustomed  to  handling  them. 

Q.  Do  you  still  use  the  Scotch  plow  ? 

A.  No;  I  use  an  jVmerican  steel  plow  which  is  made  a  good  deal 
after  the  pattern  of  the  Scotcli  ]ilow,  but  of  lighter  weight.  I  find 
this  plow  is  more  convenient  for  handling  in  tiu'uing  in  small  fields; 
but  were  I  operating  on  long  stretches  of  prau'ie  laud  I  would  by  all 
means  use  the  Scotch  plow,  because  there,  on  long  lines,  the  turning 
would  be  no  objection,  and  its  advantage  is  that  in  laying  the  fuiTOw 
in  a  clean,  compact,  unbroken  strip  at  an  angle  of  about  fortj'-five 
degrees,  thus  tui-niug  the  sod  completely  down,  the  sod  decomposes 
much  better  than  if  portions  of  it  were  irregularly  tui'ned  and  broken 
into  fragments,  as  is  the  case,  less  or  more,  with  the  usual  American 
plow,  with  its  bulging  mold-board.  The  great  improvement  made  in 
American  plows  since   187(!,  in  the  shape  of    the   mold-boards,    is 


Plowing. 


39 


obviating    this    diiiicultj'    largely,  aud  I  am  now    using  these  steel 
plows  exclusively. 

Q.  Griven  the  best  plow  for  the  work  and  a  soil  of  usual  depth, 


what  is  the  depth  and  width  of  a  furrow  you  make  with  the  plow  you 
now  use? 

A.  I  first  square  up  the  field,  and  mark  out  with  four  poles  a 
straight  Hue ;  the  first  and  second  furrows  are  plowed  very  lightly; 
the  thu-d  farrow  is  run  a  little  deeper,  and  the  fourth  is  run  the  depth 


40  How  THK  Faum  Pays. 

I  intend  to  plow.  This  is  to  ])revent  making  a  high  ridge  in  the 
centre,  and  to  bring  the  field  to  a  level  finish.  I  plow  for  corn  seven 
inches  deep  by  nine  inches  wide;  for  oats,  six  by  eight  inches,  and  for 
potatoes  or  root  crops,  nine  by  ten  inches. 

<}.  My  plan  is  somewhat  different  from  yours.  I  open  a  double 
furrow  first  to  the  full  depth.  Tlien  I  plow  the  soil  back  again,  and 
close  the  fun-ow,  and  then  go  on  with  the  plowing.  In  this  way  every 
part  of  the  land  is  plowed  to  the  full  depth,  which  for  some  crops  is 
very  important.  AMiy  do  you  make  any  distinction  between  the  depth 
you  plow  for  oats  and  for  com?  I  can  understand  whj'  you  make  a 
distinction  between  grain  crops  and  root  crops;  but  why  do  you 
make  a  distinction  between  oats  and  com? 

A.  Oats  have  rather  a  tufted  root  and  do  not  go  down  into  the  soil, 
while  corn  will  go  down  deeper,  and  it  is  necessary  to  give  it  plenty 
of  root  space.  In  sowing  oats,  I  find  that  the  nearer  the  toj)  of  the 
ground  I  can  get  them,  the  better. 

Q.  I  think  you  have  said  that  in  soils  similar  to  yours,  where  you 
have  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  depth  of  top  soU,  v\dth  a  sandy  or  gravelly 
subsoil,  there  is  no  necessity  for  subsoiling  ? 

A.  It  would  be  useless  to  subsoil  on  such  lands  as  we  have  here. 
On  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  I  do  not  think  there  is  any  benefit  in  it 
at  all.     I  think  it  is  rather  an  injury  as  far  as  my  experience  has  gone. 

Q.  But  in  all  cases  where  you  have  adhesive  soils  with  stiff  bottoms, 
would  you  not  think  it  an  advantage,  where  time  will  admit? 


BUBSOIL  PLOW. 


A.  By  all  means  in  such  cases  subsoil  what  you  can  do  thorouglily; 
it  is  better  to  cultivate  one  acre  right  than  to  undertake  ten  and  leave 
such  important  work  half  done.  The  same  amount  of  seed  will  be  re- 
quired, the  same  amount  of  plowing,  harrowing,  cultivating  and  hai-- 
vesting  must  be  done,  and  if  subsoiling  is  left  undone  the  crop  will  be 
of  little  value  on  laud  having  day  or  hai-d  gi-avel  subsoils  unless  it  is 
stirred  deep  enough  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  through.     I  used  the 


Harrowing. 


41 


subsoil  plow,  which  follows  in  the  fuiTow  after  the  ordinary  plow, 
loosening  and  stirring  the  cubsoil  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  inches. 
In  heavy  subsoils  two  horses  are  necessary. 

Q.  When  in  Scotland  some  years  ago  I  saw  that  steam  plowing 
was  quite  common.  Do  you  know  what  has  been  the  experience  with  it 
in  this  countrj'  ? 

A.  At  first  sight,  it  seems  that  in  this  country  of  machinery  and 
steam  engines,  steam  plowing  would  be  found  of  the  widest  use,  if  not  a 
necessity ;  but  the  fact  that  to-day,  I  beheve,  not  one  steam  plow  is 
working  in  this  country,  shows  there  must  be  some  obstacles  which 
cannot  be  got  over.  Several  have  been  used  in  different  localities  — 
in  Pennsylvania,  Louisiana,  Cahfornia,  Dakota  and  Minnesota — but 
all  seem  to  have  failed  of  success.  I  think  there  are  several  reasons 
for   these  failures:  their  cost  is  considerably  greater  here  than  it  is 


CHAIM   HASBOW. 


abroad;  engineers'  wages  are  higher;  coal  is  dearer;  but  worst  of 
all  for  the  steam  plow,  is  the  fact  that  we  plow  only  for  two  or 
three  months  in  a  year,  and  then  the  costly  machine  msts  in  idle- 
ness or  must  be  well  cared  for  at  great  expense ;  so  that,  in  fact,  the  first 
cost  operates  to  restrict  their  purchase,  and  the  great  cost  of  operating 
prevents  them  from  being  worked  economically  by  those  who  have 
tried  them. 

Q.  After  plowing  comes  the  haiTowing.  Please  describe  your 
method. 

A.  In  my  experience  vrith  help,  I  have  found  ten  men  competent 
to  plow  where  I  have  been  able  to  get  one  competent  to  harrow;  not 
that  there  is  anj-  more  skiU  required  in  harrowing  than  in  plowing, 
but  from  the  fact  that  it  is  not  so  easy  for  the  eye  of  the  master  to 


42 


How  THK  Farm  Pays. 


detect  bad  work  in  harrowing,  and  consequently  men  indolent  or 
careless  can  run  over  the  surface  so  that  it  may  appeiu-  to  be  well 
done  when  it  is  not.  For  this  reason,  it  is  all-important  to  have  a 
full  examination  made  of  the  work,  for  harrowiug  has  everything  to 
do  \\-ith  the  welfare  of  the  crop — to  have  the  soil  thoroughly  disinte- 
grated and  pulverized.  This  harrowing  should  jienetrate  to  a  depth 
of  five  or  six  inches,  in  order  that  the  soil  may  be  thoroughly  and 
deeply  worked. 

Q.  You  take  pretty  strong  ground  in  regard  to  harrowing.  Give 
me  your  ideas  of  what  is  good  work  and  bad  work  in  harrowing? 

A.  Let  us  take  a  newly  plowed  field;  the  soil  is  mostly  in  lumps, 
small  and  large.     A  poor  workman  runs  a  harrow  over  the  surface 


and  smooths  it  and  makes  it  fine;  it  looks  well,  but  it  is  bad  work ;  it  is 
bad  because  when  one  sows  seed  on  such  ground  it  works  down 
\inder  the  fine  surface  and  among  the  lumps  and  clods,  where  it  may 
sprout,  but  soon  dies  because  the  soil  is  too  loose  and  open  and  is 
filled  with  air  spaces.  A  good  workman  makes  his  harrow  teeth  work 
down  in  the  soil  among  the  lumps  at  the  bottom,  and  breaks  these 
up,  or  brings  them  to  the  surface,  and  so  works  the  fine,  pulverized 
soil  down  where  the  seed  will  lie  in  it,  and  sprout  and  grow  perfectly 
because  the  soil  is  fine  and  compact  ai-ound  it.  This  is  good  work. 
It  may  not  look  so  smooth  to  the  eye.  but  it  is  better  for  the  crop. 

Q.  But  this  rough  surface  would  not  be  suitable  for  seed;  then  I 
presume  the  use  of  a  roller  would  be  necessiuy  ? 


The  Acme  Harrow.  43 

A.  Yes — then  the  roller  is  used,  followed  again  by  tlie  chain  har- 
row, so  that  the  surface  may  be  made  level  and  smooth  for  the  seed. 

Q.  Is  the  chain  harrow  you  have  referred  to  in  speaking  of  manui-es 
in  general  use  ? 

A.  It  is  slowly  coming  into  use  as  people  become  acquainted  with, 
it.  Oiu"  local  blacksmith  here  has  made  for  my  sales  alone  over 
sixty  within  the  past  two  years.  They  weigh  about  300  lbs.  They 
are  eight  feet  long  and  five  feet  wide,  and  the  diamond-shaped  chain 
link  five  by  five  inches.  The  haiTow  is  made  of  the  best  wrought  iron, 
and  costs  $40  finished  and  ready  for  the  field. 

Q.  What  harrow  as  a  pulverizer  do  you  consider  the  best? 

A.  I  have  heretofore  used  the  imported  Scotch  harrow,  which  I 
had  found  to  be  the  best;  but  this  season  a  trial  of  the  American  har- 
row known  as  the  Acme  leads  me  to  beheve  that  it  will  suj^ersede  the 
Scotch  as  a  pulverizer  or  leveler,  for  it  is  the  best  implement  I  have 
ever  used  for  these  pui-poses. 

(Mr.  H.)  I  am  2>leased  to  agree  wdth  you  in  this  matter.  After  a 
thorough  trial  this  season  with  this  harrow,  I  find  it  to  be  the  best 
implement  I  have  ever  used  for  the  piu-pose  of  pulverizing  and  leveling 
the  soil.  It  is  not  only  a  harrow,  but  under  certain  conditions  of  the 
soil  it  is  to  all  intents  and  purjioses  a  gang  of  small  plows;  or,  in  other 
words,  in  a  soft  or  light  soil  you  can  plow  the  gi'ound  just  as  thorouglily 
for  six  feet  wide  as  you  can  do  it  with  the  ordinary  plow  eight  inches. 
The  great  value  of  this  implement  induces  us  to  use  more  space  for  a 
description  of  it,  and  its  uses,  than  wiU  be  probably  given  to  any 
other  implement  in  this  work.  Upon  this  accoimt  I  would  like  to 
give  the  views  of  a  well  known  farmer,  whose  experience  with 
this  imjjlement  has  been  longer  than  mine,  and  who  is  a  high 
authority  upon  such  subjects.  This  is  Heniy  Stewart,  of  Hackensack, 
N.  J.,  who,  after  using  the  harrow  for  six  or  seven  years,  says:  "After 
plowing,  the  soil  is  worked  over  with  the  Acme  harrow  and  is 
thoroughlj'  broken  np;  the  fiuTows  are  leveled;  the  whole  soil  to 
the  depth  of  four  inches  at  least  is  disturbed  as  though  a  series  of 
small  propeller  screws  passed  through  it;  it  is  thoroughly  mingled; 
the  upper  portion,  which  has  been  exposed  to  the  au',  is  turned  under 
and  buried,  and  the  whole  soil  is  loosened  up,  broken  and  made  mel- 
low. This  is  the  only  implement,  so  far  as  I  know,  that  does  this  neces- 
sary work,  and  with  this  the  best  preparation  for  crops  is  easily  possible. 
That  is  to  say,  that  the  full  effects  desired  cannot  be  obtained  by,  or 
through,  any  other  one  implement  than  this;  because  it  does  aU  that 
a  plow  could  do,  and  it  does  all  that  the  harrow  can  do  to  pulverize 
the  soil,  but  it  does  what  no  mere  harrow  can  possibly  do  in  the  way 
of  tiu'ning  over  the  soil  and  presenting  a  fresh  surface  to  the  atmos- 


44  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

phere,  and  it  does  all  that  a  cultivator  can  do,  without  the  objection- 
able eflfects  of  that  implement;  and  lastly,  it  does  all  that  a  roller  can 
do  in  the  way  of  pulverizing  cloddy  soil,  without  the  objectionable 
effects  of  that  implement  in  packing  the  soil  so  closely  that  the  air 
cannot  penetrate  it." 

Q.  You  make  a  distinction  between  what  you  would  call  leveling 
the  soU  and  smootliing  it,  do  you  not? 

A.  Yes.  For  instance,  the  Acme  harrow  levels  and  pulverizes  the 
soil,  while  the  Chain  hiurow  smooths  the  surface. 

Q.  When  you  say  that  you  haiTOW  your  manure  after  spreading  it 
on  the  land  (wliich  I  believe  is  an  excellent  plan,  and  one  that  was 
entirely  new  to  me),  what  harrow  do  you  use  for  that  pui-pose? 

A.  I  would  by  all  means  use  the  Acme  or  a  similai-  han'ow,  as  for 
that  purpose  we  require  to  mix  in  part  with  the  soil.  The  gi'eat  ad- 
va:itage  of  the  Acme  haiTOW  for  working  up  the  manure,  would  be 
that  you  can  regulate  the  depth  of  the  teeth  at  will. 

(Mr.  H.)  Jn  my  experience  among  our  market  gai'deners,  where  the 
pulverization  of  the  soil  is  as  perfect  as  we  can  get  it  for  the  reception 
of  small  seeds,  I  have  used  for  the  past  two  yeai-s  a  smoothing  harrow 
known  as  the  Disc  harrow,  which  consists  of  some  sixty  shaq)  discs 
placed  on  revolving  shafts,  so  as  to  cut  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  three 
inches  by  one  inch  in  width,  which  fines  and  levels  the  gi-ouud  as 
completely  as  can  be  done  with  a  steel  rake  in  the  hands  of  an  expert 
workman,  but  whether  such  an  imj)lement  would  answer  the  puiiiose 
as  well  for  the  requirements  of  a  farm  as  the  Chain  or  Acme  harrow 
I  am  not  able  to  say. 


THE  I>I*^"   HARROW. 


(Mr.  C.)  One  gj-eat  advantage  of  the  Acme  haiTow  over  all  others 
is  the  disposition  of  the  teeth,  which  are  so  jslaced  that  on  sod  that 
has  been  plowed  it  cuts  and  i>ulverizes  it,  wthout  di-agging  it  to  the 
surface.  The  present  season  I  turned  down  a  piece  of  sod  on  which 
I  sowed  mangels  and  planted  potatoes.  The  thoroughness  of  the 
cultivation  by  the  use  of  this  implement  was  such,  that  I  was  enabled 
to  work  the  land  up  in  ridges — which  is  my  usual  practice  with  such 
crops — as  easily  as  if  it  had  been  stubble  land. 

Q.  "What  do  you  deem  a  proper  day's  work  for  plowing  for  a  man 
and  team? 


CULTR'ATLNO.  45 

A.  One  acre  on  sod  land  and  one  acre  and  one-fovu-tli  on  stubble. 

Q.  What  area  should  a  man  and  a  pair  of  horses  harrow  in  a  day, 
to  do  it  properly,  with  the  Acme  or  other  haiTow? 

A.  From  four  to  five  acres,  to  do  it  thoroughly. 

Q.  Of  eoui'se  you  are  awaa-e  that  about  twice  that  area  is  han-owed 
when  done  in  the  ordinary  way? 

A.  Yes,  and  even  more.  But  I  consider  that  such  labor  thor- 
oughly done  is  the  best  investment  the  farmer  can  make.  My  expe- 
rience of  thirty  years  has  been  varied  and  extensive,  and  every  suc- 
ceeding year  only  impresses  the  more  strongly  upon  me  the  fact, 
that  to  get  good  croj)s  you  must  have  thorough  pulverization  of  the 
soil. 

Q.  Of  course  you  use  the  vai-ious  kinds  of  cultivators  for  the  various 
crops.     "What  implement  do  you  at  present  use  for  cultivating  corn? 

A.  Cultivators  are  now  so  varied  and  improving  every  year,  that 
it  is  hard  to  say  that  any  particvdai-  one  is  the  best.     There  are  many 


,   CTTXTIVATOIt  ANX>  HORSE  HOE. 


patterns  more  or  less  valuable.  My  rule  in  all  such  things,  when  jiur- 
chasing  at  an  implement  or  a  seed  warehouse,  is  to  ask  what  tool  is 
in  largest  demand  for  a  certain  purjiose,  and  I  usually  find  that  the 
public  in  the  long  n.in  finds  out  which  is  the  best  article,  and  that  the 
article  most  in  demand  is  the  one  iisuaUy  having  the  most  merit.  At 
present  I  have  found  that  the  cultivator  known  as  the  Planet,  Jr., 
Horse  Hoe,  does  the  best  work  in  this  way,  and  as  it  is  mostly  used  in 
this  vicinity,  pubhc  opinion  bears  me  out  in  mine. 

(Mr.  H.)  I  agi-ee  with  you  in  that  entirely,  and  as  a  seedsman  I  can 
well  endorse  it ;  for  whenever  a  customer  asks  for  any  particular  tool. 


4G  How  THE  Faum   Pavs. 

the  answer  I  make  to  him  (unless  I  Lave  certain  knowledge  myself  of 
the  subject),  is  to  go  and  ask  the  clerk  liaving  charge  of  that  depart- 
ment to  select  for  him  Uie  kind  that  is  in  most  general  demand,  and 
as  a  rule  it  wiU  be  such  as  is  the  best.  However,  I  may  state  tliat  I 
have  used  for  nearly  twenty-five  years  a  simple  form  of  cultivator 
— which  any  blacksmith  can  make — known  as  the  HaiTow-tooth 
Cultivator.  It  is  merely  a  triangular'  harrow  having  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  teeth,  which  we  use  to  stir  up  the  soil  almost  immediately  after 
a  crop  has  been  sown  or  planted,  and  this  we  continue  to  do  once  a 
week  or  so,  between  tlie  rows,  until  it  may  become  necessary  to  use 
(in  particular  crops)  a  cultivator  to  work  deeper,  such  as  the  Planet, 
Jr.  But  the  use  of  this  Harrow-tooth  cultivator  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  checking  the  lirst  growth  of  weeds,  and  as  it  is  light  and 
easily  worked,  a  vast  amount  of  labor  can  be  saved  by  using  it  often 
enough,  so  that  the  weeds  will  nerer  be  allowed  to  be  seen. 

Q.  Do  you  make  much  use  of  the  roUer  on  your  fanu,  ilr.  Crozier? 

A.  I  used  it  on  all  crops  and  particularly  on  my  pastures  early  in 
the  spring.  I  thoroughly  beUeve  in  the  jiractice  which  you  so  per- 
sistently advocate,  of  firming  the  soil  for  all  seeds  and  plants.  You, 
in  your  Hmited  areas  in  market  gardening,  can  afibrd  to  do  this  with 
the  feet,  which  probably  there  answers  the  purpose  of  finning  the 


riELD  BOLLEB. 


seeds  or  plants  better  than  the  roller,  but  on  a  farm  that,  of  coui-se, 
would  be  impracticable;  but,  whatever  method  is  used,  the  principle 
should  never  lie  neglected,  of  compacting  the  earth  around  newly  sown 
or  planted  crops,  especially  in  hot,  dry  weather,  and  particularly  so 
on  loose  and  porous  soils. 

While  you,  as  a  gardener,  advocate  the  use  of  the  feet  to  finn 
the  soU,  in  sowing  and  planting,  I,  as  a  farmer,  advocate  the  use 
of  the  roller.  Tlio  object  in  both  is  the  same;  and  I  am  satisfied 
beyond  any  shadow  of  a  doubt,  that  millions  and  milhons  of  dollare 
are  annually  lost  to  the  fai-ming  communitv,  through  a  want  of  the 


Rolling.  47 

knowledge  of  the  vast  importance  of  firming  the  soil  over  the  seed. 
This  is  particvdarly  the  case  with  buckwheat,  turnijjs  and  other  crops 
that  are  sown  fi'om  the  mouth  of  July  until  September,  as  at  such 
seasons  we  very  often  have  long-continued  di'oughts,  and  the  soil  is 
like  a  hot  ash  heap,  and  to  expect  germination  from  small  seeds  when 
sown  in  such  soUs,  without  being  firmed  against  the  entrance  of  the 
hot  ail",  is  just  about  as  useless  as  if  we  threw  them  in  the  fire. 

(Mr.  H.)  I  consider  this  subject  of  so  great  importance,  that  I  think 
we  should  take  the  liberty  to  again  j)rint  here  the  article  which  I 
read  before  the  National  Association  of  Nui-serymen  held  at  Cleveland, 
O.,  in  June  of  1879,  entitled  "The  Use  of  the  Feet  in  Sowdng  and 
Planting."  I  have  written  a  great  deal  on  horticultural  subjects  in 
the  last  twenty  years,  but  I  think  (and  I  say  this  advisedly) 
that  the  value  of  this  article  to  the  horticultural  and  agricultural 
community  is  more  than  the  whole  I  have  ever  written,  put 
together,  and  I  have  great  satisfaction  in  knowing  that  thousands 
of  men  have  thanked  me  for  impressing  so  strongly  the  necessity 
for  this  work.  This  article  has  been  reprinted  in  thousands 
of  newspapers  in  the  past  four  years,  but  if  it,  or  some  other 
similar  advice  on  the  necessity  of  firming  the  soil  after  sowing,  was 
ever  jjlaced  before  the  eyes  of  the  farming  community  and  acted  upon, 
thousands  would  be  saved  from  mourning  the  loss  of  wasted  seed, 
manure  and  labor;  for  in  a  country  vast  as  ours,  a  new  crop  of  inex- 
perienced men  are  annually  engaging  in  farming  and  gardening. 
In  no  European  work  on  farming  or  gardening  that  I  have  ever  seen, 
has  the  importance  of  what  we  have  so  strongly  argued  for  been 
referred  to,  probably  for  the  reason  that  in  the  cooler  and  more  humid 
atmosphere  of  most  Eirropean  countries  the  necessity  is  not  so  great. 


THE   USE   OF    THE   FEET  IN   SOWING  AND   PLANTING. 

[Read  before  the  National  Association   of  Nurserymen  held  at  CleYeland,  O..  in  June.  1879.] 

It  may  be  useless  to  throw  out  any  suggestions  in  relation  to  horti- 
cultm-al  operations  to  such  a  body  of  practical  men  as  is  now  bsfore 
me.  Yet  I  candidly  admit  that,  although  I  have  been  extensively 
engaged  in  gardening  operations  for  over  a  cjuarter  of  a  century,  I  did 
not  fully  realize,  until  a  few  years  ago,  the  full  importance  of  how 
indispensable  it  was  to  use  the  feet  in  the  operations  of  sowing  and 
planting. 

Tor  some  years  past  I  have,  in  writing  on  gardening  matters, 
insisted  upon  the  great  importance  of  "firming"  the  soil  over  the 


48  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

seeds  after  sowing,  especially  when  the  soil  is  dry,  or  likely  to  be- 
come so.  I  know  of  no  operation  of  more  importance  in  either  the 
farm  or  garden,  and  I  trust  that  what  I  am  about  to  say  will  be  read 
and  remembered  by  every  one  not  j^et  awai-e  of  the  vast  importance 
of  the  practice.  I  say  "  vast  importance,"  for  the  loss  to  the  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural  community,  from  the  habit  of  looselj'  sowing 
seeds  or  planting  plants  in  hot  and  dry  soils,  is  of  a  magnitude  which 
few  will  beheve,  until  thej'  have  witnessed  it;  and  it  is  a  loss  all  the 
more  to  be  regretted,  when  we  know  that  by  ' '  finning "  the  soil 
around  the  seed  or  plant,  there  is,  in  most  cases,  a  certain  pre- 
ventive. 

Particularly  in  the  sowing  of  seeds,  I  consider  the  matter  of  such 
vast  importance,  that  it  cannot  be  too  often  or  too  strongly  told;  for 
the  loss  to  the  agriculturfd  and  horticultural  community,  by  the 
neglect  of  the  simple  operation  of  firming  the  soQ  around  the  seed, 
must  amount  to  many  miUions  annually.  For  the  mischief  done  is 
not  confined  only  to  the  less  important  garden  operations,  but  even 
corn,  cotton,  wheat,  turnips  and  other  important  crops  of  the  farm, 
often  fail,  in  hot  and  dry  soUs,  by  being  sown  without  being  firmed 
sufficiently  to  prevent  the  dry  air  shriveUng  or  drying  the  seeds.  Of 
course,  the  use  of  the  feet  is  impracticable  in  finning  seeds  on  the 
farm,  but  a  heavy  roller,  applied  after  sowing,  is  an  absolute  necessity 
under  certain  conditions  of  the  soil,  to  ensure  perfect  germination. 
From  the  middle  of  April  to  neai'ly  the  end  of  May  of  this  year,  in 
many  sections  of  the  country,  there  was  Uttle  or  no  rain.  Such 
was  particularly  the  case  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City,  where  we 
have  hundreds  of  market  gardeners,  who  cultivate  thousands  of  acres 
of  cabbage,  cauUfiower  and  celery,  but  the  ' '  dry  spring  "  has  played 
sad  havoc  with  their  seed-beds.  Celery  is  not  one-foiu-th  of  a  crop,  and 
cabbage  and  cauliflower  hardly  half,  and  this  failure  is  due  to  no 
other  cause  than  that  they  persist  in  sowing  their  seeds  without  even 
taking  the  precaution  to  firm  the  soil  by  roUing. 

We  sow  annually  about  four  acres  of  celery,  cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower plants,  which  produce  probably  five  millions  in  number,  and 
which  we  never  fail  to  sell  mostly  in  our  immediate  neighborhood,  to 
the  market  gardeners,  who  liave,  many  of  them,  even  better  facihties 
than  we  have  for  raising  these  plants,  if  they  would  only  do  as  we  do, 
fimi  the  seed  after  sowing,  whi?h  is  done  thus: 

After  plowing,  hjuTowing  and  levehug  the  land  smoothly,  lines  are 
drawn  by  the  "  marker,"  which  makes  a  fun-ow  about  two  inches  deep 
and  a  foot  apiu-t ;  after  the  man  who  sows  the  seed  follows  another, 
who,  wth  the  ball  of  the  right  foot,  presses  down  his  full  weight  on 
every  inch  of  soil  in  the  drill  where  the  seed  has  been  sown;  the  rows 


Firming  the  Soil.  49 

are  then  lightly  leveled  longitudinally  with  the  rake,  a  light  roller  is 
passed  over  them,  and  the  operation  is  done. 

By  this  method  oui-  crop  has  never  once  failed,  and  what  is  true  of 
celery  and  cabbage  seed  is  nearly  true  of  all  other  seeds  requiring  to 
be  sown  during  the  late  spring  or  summer  mouths. 

On  July  2d  of  1874,  as  an  experiment,  I  sowed  twelve  rows  of 
sweet  corn  and  twelve  rows  of  beets,  treading  in,  after  sowing,  every 
alternate  row  of  each.  In  both  cases,  those  trod  in  came  up  in  four 
days,  whUe  those  unfirmed  remained  twelve  days  before  starting,  and 
would  not  then  have  germinated  had  not  raiu  fallen,  for  the  soil  was 
dry  as  dust  when  the  seed  was  sown. 

The  result  was,  that  the  seeds  that  had  been  trodden  in  grew  fi-eely 
from  the  start,  and  matui'ed  their  crops  to  a  mai'ketable  condition  by 
fall;  while  the  rows  unfirmed  did  not  mature,  as  they  were  not  only 
eight  days  later  in  germinating,  but  the  plants  were  also,  to  some 
extent,  enfeebled  by  being  partially  dried  in  the  loose,  drj'  soil. 

This  experiment  was  a  most  useful  one,  for  it  proved  that  a  corn 
crop,  sown  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  as  late  as  July  2d,  could  be 
made  to  produce  "roasting  ears"  in  October,  when  they  never  fail  to 
sell  fi'eely  at  high  rates,  but  the  crop  would  not  mature  unless  the  seed 
germinated  at  once,  and  which  would  never  be  certain  at  that  dry  and 
hot  season,  unless  by  this  method. 

The  same  season,  in  August,  I  treated  seeds  of  turnips  and  spinach 
in  the  same  way.  Those  trod  in  genninated  at  once  and  made  an  ex- 
cellent crop,  while  those  unfirmed  germinated  feebly,  and  were 
eventually  nearly  all  burned  out  by  a  continuance  of  dry,  hot  ail- 
penetrating  through  the  loose  soil  to  the  tender  rootlets. 

I  beg  to  caution  the  inexperienced,  however,  by  no  means  to  tread  or 
roll  in  seed  it  the  ground  is  not  dry.  The  soil  maj'  often  be  ia  a  suit- 
able condition  to  sow,  and  yet  may  be  too  damjj  to  be  trodden  upon 
or  rolled.  In  such  cases  these  operations  may  not  be  necessary  at  all, 
for  if  rainy  weather  ensue,  the  seeds  will  germinate  of  coui-se ;  but  if 
there  is  any  likelihood  of  a  continued  di'ought,  the  treading  or  roUing 
may  be  done  a  week  or  more  after  the  seed  has  been  sown,  if  there  is 
any  reason  to  believe  that  it  may  sufi'er  fi-om  the  dry,  hot  aii\  Another 
very  important  advantage  gained  by  treading  in  the  seed  is,  that  when 
we  have  crops  of  beets,  celery,  turnips,  si^inach,  or  anything  else  that 
is  sown  in  rows,  the  seeds  to  form  the  crop  come  up  at  once ;  while 
the  seeds  of  the  weeds,  that  are  just  as  liable  to  perish  by  the  heat  as 
are  those  of  the  crop,  are  retarded.  Such  of  the  weed  seeds  as  lie  in 
the  space  between  the  rows  when  the  soil  is  loose,  will  not  germinate 
as  ciuickly  as  those  of  the  crop  sown;  and  hence  we  can  cultivate 
between  the  rows  before  the  weeds  germinate  at  all. 


50  How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 

Of  tom-se,  this  rule  of  treading  in  or  firming  seeds  after  sowing 
must  not  be  blindly  followed.  Very  earlj-  in  spring  or  late  iu  fall, 
when  the  soil  is  damp  and  there  is  no  danger  fi-om  heated,  diy  air, 
there  is  no  necessity  for  doing  so. 

Now,  if  firming  the  soil  around  seed,  to  protect  it  fi-om  the  influence 
of  a  dry  and  hot  atmosphere,  is  a  necessity,  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  more 
so  in  the  case  of  plants  whose  rootlets  are  even  more  sensitive  to  such 
influence  than  the  donnant  seed. 

Experienced  professional  horticulturists,  however,  are  less  likely  to 
neglect  this  than  to  neglect  in  the  case  of  seeds,  for  the  damage  from 
such  neglect  is  easier  to  be  seen,  and  hence  better  understood  bj-  the 
practical  nurseryman;  but  with  the  inexperienced  amateur  the  case 
is  difierent.  "When  he  receives  his  package  of  trees  or  plants  fi-om  the 
niu-seryman,  he  handles  them  as  if  they  were  glass,  every  broken  twig 
or  root  calls  forth  a  complaint,  and  he  proceeds  to  plant  them,  gingerly 
straightening  out  each  root  and  sifting  the  soil  around  them,  but 
he  would  no  more  stamp  down  that  soil  than  he  would  stamiJ  on  the 
soil  of  his  mother's  grave.  So  the  plant,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  is 
left  loose  and  waggUng;  the  dry  air  penetrates  through  the  soil  to  its 
roots;  the  winds  shake  it;  it  shrivels  up  and  fails  to  grow;  and  then 
come  the  anathemas  on  the  head  of  the  unfortunate  nurseryman,  who 
is  charged  with  selling  him  dead  trees  or  plants. 

About  a  month  ago  I  sent  a  package  of  a  dozen  roses  by  mail  to  a 
lady  in  Savannah.  She  ^vl■ote  me  a  woful  story  last  week,  saying 
that,  though  the  roses  had  amved  seemingly  all  right,  they  had  all 
tlied  but  one,  and  what  was  very  singular,  she  said,  the  one  that  lived 
was  the  one  that  Mr.  Jones  had  stepped  on,  and  which  she  had  thought 
sm-e  was  crushed  to  death,  for  Mr.  Jones  weighs  200  lbs.  Now, 
though  I  do  not  advise  any  gentleman  of  200  lbs.  putting  his  brogau 
on  the  top  of  a  tender  rose  plant,  as  a  practice  conducive  to  its  health, 
yet,  if  Mrs.  Jones  could  have  allowed  her  weighty  lord  to  press  the 
soil  against  the  root  of  each  of  her  dozen  roses,  I  much  doubt  if  she 
would  now  have  to  mourn  their  loss. 

It  has  often  been  a  wonder  to  many  of  us,  who  have  been  workers 
in  the  soil  for  a  generation,  how  some  of  the  simplest  methods  of  cul- 
ture have  not  been  practiced  until  we  wei"e  nearly  done  with  life's  work. 

There  are  few  of  us  but  have  had  such  experience;  personally,  I 
must  say  that  I  never  i)ass  through  a  year  but  I  am  confounded  to 
find  that  some  operation  can  not  only  be  cjuieker  done,  but  better 
done,  than  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  doing  it. 

These  improvements  loom  up  from  various  causes,  but  mainly  from 
suggestions  thrown  out  by  our  employees  in  charge  of  sjjecial  de- 
])artments,  a  system  which  we  do  all  in  oui'  power  to  encourage. 


Value  of  Improved  Methods.  51 

As  a  f)roof  of  the  value  of  such  improvements  wliicli  have  led  to 
simplifj'ing  our  operations,  I  ■wall  state  the  fact  that  though  my  area 
of  greenhouse  sui-face  is  now  more  than  double  that  which  it  was  in 
1870,  and  the  land  used  in  our  florist's  business  is  one-third  more, 
the  number  of  hands  employed  is  less  now  than  in  1870,  and  yet,  at 
the  same  time,  the  quality  of  our  stock  is  infinitely  better  now  than 
then. 

^Miether  it  is  the  higher  price  of  labor  in  this  country,  that  forces 
us  into  labor-saving  expedients,  or  the  interchange  of  opinions  fi'om 
the  greater  number  of  nationalities  centering  here,  that  gives  us 
broader  views  of  cultui-e,  I  am  not  prepared  to  state ;  but  that  America 
is  now  selling  nearly  all  the  j^roducts  of  the  greenhouse,  garden,  nursery 
and  farm  lower  than  is  done  in  Eiu'ope,  admits  of  no  question; 
and  if  my  homely  suggestions  in  this  ruatter  of  firming  the  soil  around 
newly  planted  seeds  or  plants  will  in  any  degi'ee  assist  us  in  atill 
holding  to  the  front,  I  shall  be  gratified. 


52  How  THE  Fahm  Pavs. 


CIL\PTER  IV. 


KOTATION   OF   CROPS. 

Q.  Wlien  we  begin  cultivatiou  of  land  that  lias  not  been  pre- 
viously cropped,  whether  in  the  natural  meadow  or  in  brush  or  wood- 
land, the  first  operation  is  to  get  the  land  in  condition  for  tillage, 
"WUI  you  please  state.  ^Ir.  Crozier,  what  has  been  your  plan  of  oper- 
ating on  lands  of  this  kind  ? 

A.  Jly  method  has  been  to  prepare  the  land  for  the  plow  (if  brush 
land)  bj-  first  removing  the  brush  by  the  use  of  binish  scythes  or 
brush  hooks  and  burning  it  on  the  land.  If  there  are  many  roots, 
I  put  three  horses  abreast  on  a  heavy  plow  and  turn  the  soU  eight  or 
nine  inches  deep;  I  then  spread  on  manure  accortling  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  land;  harrow  it  in  thoroughly;  mark  both  ways  with  a 
plow,  thi-ee  and  a  half  feet,  ready  for  corn.  I  plant  my  corn  in  hiUs, 
cover  it  with  a  hoe,  and  run  a  heavy  roller  over  the  whole  surface. 
As  soon  as  the  young  corn  appears  I  keej)  the  cultivatoi-s  moving 
through  it  both  ways  until  the  corn  gets  too  high  to  cultivate.  I  do 
not  hiU  it  uji,  as  I  prefer  fiat  culture  for  this  crop. 

Q.  On  such  land  how  much  manure  per  acre  do  you  use  ? 

A.  It  would  be  difficult  to  name  a  specific  quantity,  as  so  much 
would  depend  upon  the  necessities  of  the  soU — upon  how  much 
leaf  mould  there  might  be  on  it.  I  would  say,  however,  that  in  my 
operations  here  on  such  soils  I  have  used  about  twenty-five  two-hoi-se 
loads  to  the  acre.  I  have  actually  produced  (by  measurement  of  a 
committee  fi-om  the  New  York  Farmers'  Club)  240  bushels  of  eai-s  of 
corn,  per  acre,  fi-om  virgin  soil.  Continuing  my  method  of  culture: 
in  the  fall,  after  the  corn  is  taken  oft'  the  field,  the  land  is  again  thor- 
oughly plowed  and  left  through  the  printer.  In  the  spi'ing  it  is  hai'- 
rowed  and  plowed  again  and  sowed  with  oats  and  jieas,  sowing  part 
in  oats,  and  part  in  oats  and  peas  mixed,  which  we  use  as  a  soiling 
croj).  The  thiid  year  I  })lant  with  roots  and  fodder  corn,  thoroughly 
manured.     The  fourth  year,  seed  down  to  grass  with  oats. 

Q.  What  vaiiety  of  corn  was  it  you  refer  to  as  producing  240 
bushels  of  ears  to  the  acre '? 

A.  It  was  a  large  yellow  fiintcom.  Tlie  eai"swere  twelve  rowed  and 
verj-  long,  and  filled  out  to  the  end,  and  Uie  cob  was  small.     Although 


VARIETrES    OF    CoRX. 


53 


CHEbTER  COUNTl   ilAilMU 


there  is  a  good  deal  in  the  vaiietj-,  yet  there  is  a  good  deal,  too,  in  the 
chai'acter  of  the  soil  and  the  cultivation.  Probabl}'  the  well  known 
Tariety,  King  Phillip-),  or  any  other  good  kind,  suited  to  this  northern 
locality,  would  have  done  as  well  under  the  same  circumstances.  But  it 
is  an  all- imjiortant  matter,  that  a  farmer  should  choose  a  suitable  variety 
of  seed  for  his  climate.  For  instance,  the  corn  crop  this  season  (1883) 
in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  has  generaUj-  failed,  because  the  most  of 
the  seed  planted  was  brought  from  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  where  the 
season  is  much  longer  than  in  the  north,  and  more  time  is  requu-ed 
for  corn  to  ripen.  Had  they  got  their  seed  from  any  other  northern 
locahty  they  would  probably  have  been  safe.  Just  now  there  are  a 
number  of  very  promising  new  vaiieties  of  com  making  then-  appear- 
ance. It  would  be  ^nse 
'^Y'^.  yT^.'T^^r^''!^  ^^ffr"  -r  for  farmers  to  test  these 

'•v<^X;  ^__^___     'J^J^',ry-(+  rt-rhWi^TJ^       judiciouslj'  lu   a    smaU 

way  at  first,  that  their 
adaiDtation  to  sjjecial 
chmates  may  be  tested. 
Among  these  might  be 
mentioned  the  two  ex- 
cellent kinds,  Golden 
Beauty  and  Chester 
Count}-  Mammoth,  but 
with  the  proviso  that 
these  should  only  be  planted  where  there  are  at  least  100  days  of 
safe  growing  season. 

Q.  This  mode  of  culture  you  describe,  Mr.  Crozier,  is  the  one  you 
followed  on  your  farm  here.  For  what  pui-pose  was  your  farming 
land  intended? 

A.  It  was  intended  for  a  dairy  and  stock  farm,  and  the  prej)arations 
to  the  fourth  year  were  simply  laying  a  broad  foundation  for  my 
futui-e  work.  The  fifth  yeai"  com,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  peas,  mangels 
and  turnips  were  my  general  crops. 

Q.  Having  detailed  yoiu'  method  of  laying  the  foundation,  as  you 
term  it,  wUl  j'ou  now  describe  your  system  of  gi'owing  root  crops, 
beginning  -uith  potatoes  ? 

A.  My  plan  of  growing  potatoes  is  to  plow,  and  maniu'e  broadcast 
at  the  rate  of  ten  or  twelve  loads  per  acre,  as  I  never  lose  sight  of 
what  is  to  come  after,  and  roU  the  gTouud  well  before  fuiTowing. 
The  ground  can  never  be  furrowed  so  well  when  it  is  loose  as  when  it  is 
made  firm  by  the  use  of  the  roUer,  and  my  practice  has  always 
been,  no  matter  what  length  the  I'ows,  they  must  be  straight  and  of 
even  width.     When  the  fuiTows  ai'e  marked  out  three  feet  apart,  I 


54  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

also  insuiuie  at  the  rate  of  five  loails  ^ler  aci-e  in  tlie  fiuTows.  I  plant 
the  liu-f^est  potatoes  cut  lengthwise  in  two  parts,  dropped  fifteen  inches 
apart  in  the  rows,  and  cover  with  the  plow  about  four  inches,  and 
before  the  sprouts  come  throu-^'h  the  gi-ound  haiTow  with  the 
chain  haiTOw  or  mth  a  light  sloping  tooth  hiuTOw,  the  object 
being  to  breivk  the  cmst  to  a  depth  of  an  inch  or  two  and  to  destroy 
the  weeds  in  the  embryo  state.  The  after  cultivation  is  done  with  the 
hoe  and  cultivator.  In  gathering,  plow  out  with  the  double  fiuTow 
plow,  pick  up,  put  in  pits  or  the  cellw.  The  largest  of  the  potatoes 
ai-e  mai-keted  if  the  price  is  good.  If  it  is  not,  they  are  fed  to  the 
stock  with  the  small  ones. 

Q.  At  what  price  do  you  consider  they  should  be  sold  rather  than 
fed  to  the  stock  ? 

A.  Forty  cents  per  bushel.  If  less  than  that,  it  would  pay  better 
to  feed  them  to  cattle  or  hogs.  In  fact,  it  has  always  been  my  practice 
to  feed  ever^ihing  raised  on  the  fai-m,  unless  the  mai'ket  price  was 
such  as  would  justify  disposing  of  it  at  a  fair  profit. 

Q.  Have  j'ou  ever  had  any  ti'ouble,  in  feedhig  potatoes  to  cows,  fi'om 
the  danger  of  their  choking,  and  if  so  how  do  you  guai'd  against  that 
danger  ?  I  remember  when  a  boy  of  many  a  good  cow  l>eing  choked 
by  potatoes . 

A.  To  prevent  any  possibUity  of  choking  I  run  the  potatoes  thi-ough 
my  "  pulper "  or  root  cutter,  but  cattle  occasionally  get  choked  with 
apples  and  potatoes  which  they  pickup  out-doors.  In  such  cases  there 
is  no  other  remedy  but  the  jn-obang — a  flexible  instrument  with  a 


T-'O^^^ 


■^WWVWUWVarLr^ 


corkscrew  in  the  lower  end,  to  In-ing  up  the  potato  or  apple,  if  it  will 
come — if  not,  it  must  be  shoved  do-n-n  into  the  stomach.  A  method 
which  has  been  used  when  the  obstacle  cannot  be  removed  by  the 
probaug,  is  to  crush  the  root  in  the  tluroat  by  a  sharp  blow  of  a 
mallet,  a  block  of  wood  being  held  on  the  other  side.  This  has 
saved  animals  which  would  have  l>een  lost  without  it.  (The  probang, 
shown  in  the  illustration,  consists  of  a  flexible  tube,  which  is  pushed 
down  the  throat  until  it  meets  the  obstacle,  when,  if  this  cannot  be 


CULTDRE    OF    POTATOES.  55 

pushed  down,  the  tiexible  rod  with  the  corkscrew  at  the  end  is 
l^ushed  down  the  tube,  and  the  obstacle  is  then  caught  and  (b-awnujj.) 

Q.  I  presume,  of  course,  you  are  thoroughlj-  familiar  with  the  end- 
less discussions  that  have  been  in  the  jjapers  for  the  last  twenty  years 
on  the  Cjuestion  of  what  kinds  of  potatoes  we  should  use  for  seed — 
whether  they  should  be  small  or  large,  whether  cut  or  in  single  eyes, 
or  cut  in  halves.    "VMiat  has  been  your  practice  and  the  result  of  it? 

A.  I  have  always  practiced,  with  the  exception  of  experiments,  to 
choose  the  largest  potatoes,  and  cut  fi-om  the  toj)  end  through  to 
the  butt,  straight,  making  two  pieces  of  each,  thus  giving  the  seed 
ample  substance.  In  mj'  experience  in  cutting  to  single  eyes  I  liave 
never  had  much  success  in  getting  a  full  crop. 

(111-.  H.)  Although  I  have  grown  but  few  potatoes,  I  think  my 
general  experience  in  horticultiu'e  will  warrant  me  in  saj-ing  that  the 
result  of  the  practice  of  cutting  the  jDotatoes  to  single  eyes,  or  even 
two  eyes,  unless  a  good  portion  of  what  may  be  called  the  nutritious 
substance  of  the  potato  is  left,  can  never  be  good,  because  this  sub- 
stance of  the  potato  is  absoluteh-  necessary  to  .sustain  the  bud  or  eye 
until  it  starts.  Experiments  with  beans  and  peas  that  have  been 
attacked  by  the  weevil,  where  the  whole  or  ijortions  of  this  pabulum 
of  the  seed  has  been  eaten  out,  have  shown  so  clearly,  by  frequent 
and  cai-eful  trials,  that  when  the  pabulum  of  the  seed  is  com- 
j)letely  exhausted,  the  seed  germ  will  not  start  at  ah,  and  that 
when  it  is  partially  exhausted  it  will  start  feebly,  and  make  a 
weak  plant.  This  undoubtedly  must  be  true  of  the  tuber  of  the  potato 
as  weU  as  the  seed  of  the  pea  or  bean.  Nature  provides  this  sub- 
stance for  the  germ  or  bud  to  feed  on  until  it  is  able  to  take  care  of 
itself,  and  if  you  rob  it  of  its  sustenance  you  must  pay  the  penalty. 
I  know  well  that  it  is  often  the  custom  when  new  potatoes  are  intro- 
duced to  cut  them  up  into  single  eyes,  in  the  hoj)e  of  producing  a 
larger  crop  from  the  costly  seed;  but  I  doubt  very  much  if  any 
additional  weight  of  crop  wUl  be  gained,  and  undoubtedly  the  vitality 
of  the  roots  will  be  weakened  for  future  products,  if  wanted  for  that 
pui'pose,  which,  with  new  potatoes,  is  generally  the  case ;  as  of  coui'se 
when  piu'chased  at  two  or  tlu-ee  doUars  per  jjound,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Early  Rose,  men  do  not  jslant  such  potatoes  to  eat  the  first  year. 
I  remember  very  well,  when  the  Early  Rose  variety  was  introduced, 
that  I  piu'chased  a  tuber  weighing  live  ounces. 

In  April  I  cut  this  five-ounce  potato  in  two  pieces,  so  that  each 
surface  would  present  the  greatest  number  of  eyes.  I  then  placed 
them  on  a  shelf,  keeping  them  entirely  dry  until  the  cut  part  had 
healed  over,  when  they  were  placed  on  soil  on  the  bench 
of   the   greenliouse.     The   shoots    soon    began    to    start    from   the 


5()  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

eyes,  the  tenii)t'rnturf  of  the  {sreenbouse  averapn^r,  peiliaps,  seveuty- 
live  {le<;;i-ees. 

As  soon  as  the  shoots  got  to  be  three  or  four  inches  iu  len^^'th,  they 
were  c-nt  ofl'  about  oue-fonrtli  of  an  inc-h  from  the  surface  of  the  i)otato, 
or  fai-  enouf,'h  firom  the  surface  so  as  not  to  injure  the  dormant  eyes 
that  were  yet  to  start.  The  shps  were  then  phicecl  in  the  jirop- 
agating  house,  and  sliaded  and  watered  until  rooted  in  the  usual  way. 
They  were  then  potted  in  small  i)ots,  iu  ordinary  soil,  and  started  to 
grow  in  the  same  temiieratui-e  in  which  the  jiotato  had  been  placed. 
As  the  season  advanced,  shoots  in  great  numbers  were  thrown  out  by 
the  potato,  which,  in  turn,  were  submitted  to  the  same  process  of 
rooting.  As  the  first  shoots  grew  to  lengths  of  five  or  six  inches 
the  tojjs  were  cut  from  these  and  used  as  cuttings,  so  that  by  the  end 
of  May  this  sniiJl  potato  of  five  ounces  had  given  me  neai-ly  150 
plants,  every  one  of  which  was  equal  to  a  "set"  made  from  a  tuber. 
These  were  jjlantrd  out  on  the  first  week  in  June,  in  land  very  ill 
suited  for  the  growth  of  the  jsotato,  and  the  croj),  when  dug, 
weighed  exactly  450  pounds,  or  an  increase  of  about  1,800  fold. 
It  may  be  asked  if  this  process  is  of  any  jjractical  value,  or  whether 
it  will  pay.  It  is  not  claimed  that  there  is  any  use  in  the  practice 
when  potatoes  are  sold  at  ordinary  rates;  but,  when  they  are  sold 
at  the  rates  even  yet  paid  for  new  varieties,  there  is  no  doubt 
of  its  utility.  For  instance:  one  pound  of  potatoes  so  grown  ■will 
easily  produce  500  jilants,  making  500  hiUs,  which,  with  ordinary  cul- 
tm-e,  will  give  three  pounds  jior  hill  or  1,500  pounds.  The  jirocess  of 
rooting  the  sli])s  is  neither  difhcult  nor  costly,  and  can  be  done 
in  a  common  hot-bed.  The  ordinary  hot-bed  sash,  four  by  six 
feet,  will  hold  OOO  plants,  if  placed  in  the  soil  of  the  hot-lied  just 
as  lettuce  or  ('abbage  plants  are  planted  out,  and  treated  much  in  the 
same  way  by  careful  shading  and  watering  \intil  the  cuttings  have 
rooted.  These,  as  they  grow,  make  other  cuttings  from  the  tojj, 
as  before  described.  Without  resorting  to  the  glass  propaga- 
tion at  all,  a  potato  crop  may  be  doubled  or  trebled  in  quan- 
tity by  "slipjiing"  the  shoots,  and  planting  them  out  at  once  in 
the  field,  if  there  is  a  continuance  of  rainy  weather  for  two  or  thi-ee 
days  at  the  time.  This  should  be  done  in  June.  The  thinning  out 
of  shoots  fi-om  the  regular  jjlanting  will  do  no  injury  to  the 
plants.  It  is  not  claimed  that  the  growing  of  potatoes  in  this 
way  is  new;  in  fact,  it  may  be  doubted  if  there  is  much  new  in 
agriculture;  processes  that  are  suggested  to  us  1)V  cii'cumstances 
to-day  may  have  been  practiced  by  others  centuries  ago,  and  if  pub- 
lished to  the  world  at  all  have  long  since  been  forgotten;  but  there 
is  little  doubt  that  this  ]>ractiro  of  growing  potatoes  from  cuttings 


EXEJIIES    OF    THE    PoTATO.  57 

■will  be  new  to  many  who  will  read  this  book,  tbough  the  principles 
involved,  and,  perhaj^s,  the  practice  followed,  have  been  long  known 
to  many  farmers  and  gardeners  of  experience. 

Although  this  system  of  propagating  the  j^otato  may  be  of  very 
Uttle  use  to  the  farmer  in  a  general  way,  when  there  is  jjlenty  of  seed, 
yet  whenever  he  invests  at  the  rate  of  one  or  two  dollars  per  pound 
for  new  varieties  it  will  be  worth  his  while  to  try  it,  and  he  may  be 
assured  that  if  properly  done  it  will  give  good  results. 


POTATO   DISEASES   AND   IXSECTS. 

Qthr.  H.)  The  potato  disease  which  has  frequently  been  so  dis- 
astrous iu  Ireland  and  j)arts  of  Scotland  has  never  been  devastating 
here.  There  is  but  Uttle  doubt  that  it  is  a  parasitical  fvmgus  of  some 
kind,  for  which  all  remedies  are  useless  when  the  crop  is  attacked. 
Like  aU  diseases  of  this  kind,  the  only  help  we  have  is  prevention. 
As  far  as  experiments  have  gone,  they  have  shown  that  potatoes  are 
always  less  Uable  to  attacks  of  disease  or  rot  if  planted  in  new  laud 
broken  up  fi'om  the  sod,  or  at  least  that  which  has  not  been  long  iu 
cultivation.  Another  enemy  to  this  crop  is  the  well  known  striped 
potato  beetle.  Fortunately,  for  this  pest  we  have  a  certain  remedy 
in  the  use  of  Paris  green,  which  may  be  put  on  either  by  dusting 
while  the  dew  is  on  the  leaves  in  the  morning,  or  after  a  rain,  or  else 
in  a  liquid  fonn  of  one  ounce  of  Paris  gi'een  to  ten  gallons  of  water. 
But  whichever  way  it  is  appUed,  it  should  be  begun  at  the  very  first 
appearance  of  the  beetles.  If  they  once  get  a  foothold,  they  increase 
so  rapidly  that  often  the  crop  is  destroyed  before  the  remedy  can  be 
of  any  avaQ.  Paris  green  being  a  deadly  poison,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  fields  on  which  jjotatoes  are  growing  should  be  pro- 
tected from  cattle.  It  is  sometimes  supposed  that  danger  might 
arise  from  the  use  of  the  Paris  green  affecting  the  potato  tubers. 
There  need  be  no  fear  of  this,  as  the  tubers  do  not  in  any  way 
absorb  it. 

The  disease  known  as  the  potato  rot  is  a  vegetable  parasite  which 
gi-ows  within  the  substance  of  the  pilant,  and  affects  the  leaves,  stems 
and  tubei's,  as  is  well  known.  Some  part  of  its  Ufe  history  is  known; 
and  while  all  is  not  known,  yet  enough  has  been  learned  to  give  us 
some  indications  of  how  it  may  be  prevented,  for  as  to  ciu'e  when 
once  the  plants  have  been  attacked,  there  is  and  can  be  none,  because 
of  the  impossibOity  of  applying  any  remedy.  The  parasitic  plant,  a 
species  of  fungus,  propagates  itself  by  means  of  spores,  which  are  the 
seed.     The  spores  matui-e  iu  the   leaves  and  stems,  as  well  as  the 


58  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

tubei-s.  To  prevent  its  fui-tber  spread  by  infection  of  tbe  gi-ound,  as 
far  as  we  can  we  should  gather  the  vines  and  leaves  when  tlie  crop 
is  dug  and  bui-u  theiu.  Also  cook  and  feed  the  affected  tubers  to 
pigs  and  pi-eseiTo  onlj'  sound  ones  for  next  year's  seed.  This  will 
help  us  as  far,  probably,  as  we  Lave  learned  how  to  go.  I  have  heard 
that  it  prevents  the  spread  of  the  disease  in  the  stored  potatoes  to 
sprinkle  them  fi-eily  and  thoroughly  with  aii'-slaked  lime,  but  I  have 
no  personal  experience  of  that.  From  mj-  experience  with  the  fumes 
of  sulphur  in  destroying  mildew  and  all  other  parasitic  life,  I  am  of 
opinion  that  sulphur  biu'ned  in  places  where  potatoes  are  kept  would 
aiTest  the  sjiread  of  disease. 

The  simplest  method  of  applying  the  sulphiu"  fumes  is  to  sprinMe 
flowers  of  sulphui-  on  sheets  of  paper,  roll  these  up  and  bum  them  so 
as  to  keep  a  continuous  supply  of  the  fumes  to  saturate  the  air  of 
the  cellar'  for  four  or  live  days.  This  is  a  cheap  and  simple  appUca- 
tion  which  I  think  would  be  eti'ective.  It  would  be  useless  to  apply 
sulphur  in  any  other  way,  as  it  must  be  volatilized  by  heat. 


SWEET   POTATOES. 

Although  sweet  potatoes  can  hai'dly  be  called  a  crop  for  the  farm 
in  the  ueighborhovidofNewYork,  yet  in  the  Southern  States  it  is  one 
of  the  leading  farm  ju'oducts,  and  it  is  even  grown  successfully  as  far 
north  as  New  Jersey.  The  plants  are  raised  in  hot-beds  from  so-called 
"  seed "  sweet  potatoes,  wliich  are  usually  of  small  size,  but  must  be 
soiind.  These  ai-e  placed  in  hot-beds  any  time  during  the  month  of 
April.  After  the  hot-bed  has  been  made  in  the  usuid  way — that  is, 
one  and  one-half  or  two  feet  deep  of  horse  manure — a  laj'er  of  sand  or 
sandy  loam  is  tluown  over  it  to  the  depth  of  foiu*  or  five  inches  and 
the  seed  potatoes  jilacedon  this  close  together.  As  soon  as  the  shoots 
begin  to  appeal',  a  layer  of  an  inch  of  sand  is  thrown  over  them.  The 
shoots  quickly  sprout  through  the  sand,  and  by  the  midtUe  or  end  of 
May,  in  the  latitude  of  New  Jersey,  they  are  in  condition  to  be  set 
out  in  the  open  ground.  In  Southern  New  Jereeyand  further  south, 
these  beds  are  not  covered  with  glass,  but  with  a  light  covering  of 
straw  or  coai'sehay,  to  retain  the  warmth.  This  is  i-emoved  when  the 
plants  appear.  In  sections  of  the  country  where  sweet  potatoes  ai'e 
grown  even  to  a  small  extent,  there  are  generally  men  who  make  o, 
business  of  growing  the  plants,  which  are  often  to  be  bought  as  low  as 
one  dollar  per  1,000,  and  it  will  be  foimd  better  for  the  gi'ower  to 
purchase  than  to  raise  them  himself,  if  he  has  not  the  ]n'oper  con- 
venience of  sashes  and  hot-beds.  The  plants  are  set  out  in  rows  three 


Sweet  Potatoes,  Roots.  59 

or  four  feet  distant,  and  about  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  using  a 
'  good  shovelful  of  well  rotted  manui-e,  mixed  in,  for  each  hill.  They 
are  alwaj^s  planted  in  light,  sandj'  soil,  heavy  soils  being  entu-ely  uncon- 
genial to  the  natiu'e  of  the  root.  As  thej'  advance  in  growth  the  rows 
are  hilled  up  with  the  plow  in  the  same  manner  as  ordinary  potatoes, 
care  being  taken,  however,  to  prevent  the  shoots,  as  they  hang  over> 
fi'om  rooting  in  the  sand.  This  is  done  by  running  along  the  rows 
occasionally  under  them  with  the  hand  to  break  the  joung roots  and 
keep  them  from  striking  into  the  soil.  If  this  is  not  done,  it  would 
divert  the  gi'owth  fi-om  the  main  root,  and  the  tubers  would  be  small 
and  nearly  worthless.  In  the  Northern  States  sweet  jjotatoes  must 
always  be  used  previous  to  December,  unless  thej-  can  be  kejjtinawarm 
jjlace.  The  ordinary  cellar,  which  is  suitable  for  the  common  potato, 
win  quickly  rot  the  sweet  potato.  In  the  Southern  States  they  ai'e 
kejot  in  pits  in  the  open  gi-ound  in  much  the  same  waj-  as  we  keep 
ordinary  potatoes  North ;  but  the  temperature  of  the  sand  is  of  course 
much  higher  in  Florida  and  other  extreme  Southern  States  than  it  is 
North.  Most  of  the  sweet  potatoes  that  find  their  way  to  our  Northern 
mai-kets  in  the  winter  and  sj)iing  months  ai-e  grown  in  Georgia,  South 
Carolina  and  other  Southern  States.  They  ai'e  preserved  in  the  South 
by  storiug  them  in  houses  specially  built  for  that  jJurpose.  The 
potatoes  are  jDacked  in  boxes  not  more  than  eighteen  inches  deep,  which 
are  placed  in  tiers  one  above  the  other,  leaving  sjDaces  between  for 
ventilation.  But  in  extreme  cold  weather  it  is  necessary  that  the 
apartment  should  l)e  heated  in  some  way  so  that  the  temjseratiu'e  at 
no  time  is  allowed  to  fall  below  fifty  degrees.  There  is  no  necessity 
for  packing  anything  around  them,  as,  if  the  heat  in  the  apartment  is 
sufficier:t,  thej'  wiU  keep  by  the  air  circulating  around  them  among 
the  shelves  or  boxes  in  which  they  are  jjlaced.  Probably  the  best 
temperature  at  which  sweet  potatoes  can  be  kept  La  winter  is  sixty 
degrees. 

ROOTS  FOR   FEEDING. 

(Mr.  H.)  The  most  important  of  all  the  root  crops  used  for  feeding 
ai-e  mangels  and  turnips.  These  have  been  largely  grown  in  Europe 
for  more  than  thirty  years,  and  considermg  how  well  the  American 
climate  and  soil  are  adapted  for  their  culture,  it  is  smiDrising  that  so 
little  attention  has  hitherto  been  given  to  them  in  this  country.  It 
is  more  particularly  surprising  when  we  consider  our  special  necessi- 
ties, arising  out  of  our  long,  dry  summers,  which  diminish  the  yield  of  the 
hay  and  other  fodder  crops;  as  well  as  our  long  winter  feeding  season, 
in  which  some  succulent  fodder,  such  as  roots,  is  so  useful  to  feed 


60 


How  THK  Farm  Pays. 


■with  the   hay  aud   other  dry  i^rovender.     ^langeLs,  which  are   the 
most  valuable  of  all  roots  for  this  jiuiiiose,  may  be  grown  in  any' 
l)art  of  the  American  Continent  upon  any  fairly  good  farm  land, 
if  only   the   necessary    care    is   given    in    their  cultivation.       The 
soil  best  adapted  for  them   is  a  loose,   friable  loam,   ■with  a  dry. 


KINVEB  YELLOW  GLOBE  UAMQEL. 


LONO   1U,D  MANGEL. 


loose  subsoil,  as  deep  culture  is  indispensable.  The  soil  should 
be  plowed  if  necessary  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches,  or  the  land 
should  be  broken  to  that  depth  l)y  following  the  plow  with  a  subsoiler. 
In  all  soils,  excepting  sufficiently  deep,  rich  new  land,  well  rotted 
manure  or  compost  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  twelve  to  twentv  tons 


Culture  of  Roots. 


61 


per  acre,  spread  upon  the  surface  before  plowing  and  covered  in  with 
the  plow.  In  place  of  this,  but  all  the  better  with  it,  300  to  .500 
pounds  per  acre  of  sujjerphosphate,  or  Peruvian  guano,  should  be 
applied  by  sowing  on  the  surface  after  plowing,  and  harrowing  it  in. 
Immediately  after  this,  the  soil  should  be  well  smoothed  by  the 
smoothing  harrow  and  roller.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills,  by  means 
of  a  seed  drill,  the  Planet  or  any  other  of  an  equally  good  kind, 
twenty-four  inches  apart  in  light  soils,  and  thirtj-  inches  in  strong, 
rich  land,  the  plants  being  thinned  to  nine  inches  apart  in  the  foi-mer 
case  and  twelve  in  the  latter.  This  is  what  is  tenned  flat  cultiu'e. 
Some  farmers,  however,  practice  the  ridge  system,  and  as  this  is 
your  method,  Mr.  Crozier,  please  describe  it,  and  say  how  you  pro- 
duce the  enormous  erojjs  which  I  have  seen  in  your  fields  ? 

(]Mi\  C. )  After  thoroughly  plowing,  harrowing  and  smoothing  the 
land,  I  stiike  out  furrows  with  the  double  mold-board  plow  (if  this 
is  not  obtainable,  any  plow  that  will  make  such  a  fiuTOW  wiU  do),  , 
thirty  inches  apart.  The  furi'ow  is  sis  to  seven  inches  deej).  These 
fuiTows  are  then  half  tilled  with  compost  (see  chapter  on  Maniu'es) 
or  stable  manure,  thoroughly  decomposed,  or,  if  yet  rough  and  un- 
rotted,  it  is  pressed  down  in  the  rows  with  the  feet.  After  the 
manure  has  been  placed  in  the  furrows,  the  plow  is  run  on  each  side,  so 
as  to  cover  in  the  manui'e,  and  to  raise  a  ridge  as  high  as  the  furrow 
was  deep.  These  ridges  are  leveled  with  a  roller  or  chain  harrow, 
about  two  or  three  inches,  which  widens  the  ridge,  so  as  to  jjermit 
the  seed  sower  to  work  on  it.     Where  stable  manure  is  scai'ce,  I  use 

superphosphate,  or  bone 
r^^^T'^  '"'^^e~..      ^\  dust,  sown  in  the  fiu-rows 

at  the  rate  of  about  300 
pounds  to  the  acre,  keep- 
ing the   ridge   over  the 
fiuTOws  not  so   high  as 
over  the  manure.     About 
sis  to   eight  pounds    of 
seed  are  used  to  the  acre, 
sown  ■R'ith  the  seed  drill. 
If  sown  by   hand,   fully 
double  that  quantity  wiU 
be  required.     The  plants  are  thinned  to  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
apart,   the  land  is  well  cultivated,  and  kept  loose   and  free   from 
weeds. 

This  system  of  cidture,  both  for  mangels  and  turnips,  requires 
more  labor,  but  is  a  saving  in  maniu'e.  The  best  time  for  sowing,  in 
the  latitude  of  New  York,  is  from  May  1st  to  the  1.5th;  but  this  time 


S£IUj  DKLLL 


62 


How  THK  Fakji  Pays 


may  Le  extended  vp  to  June  1st.  The  time  to  sow  is  irom  eight  to 
ten  days  before  com  is  usually  planted.  The  varieties  most  used  are 
Long  Bed,  and  the  Golden  Tankard  and  Kinver  Globe,  which 
are  Ijoth  yellow  kinds.  The  average  yield  of  mangels  is  thirty  tons 
or  over  per  acre;    this  is   etjual  to   1,000  bushels.     I  consider  the 


GOLDEN  T.VNKAim  M.VNGEL. 


average  value  of  mangels,  for  feeding  stock,  to  be  $4  per  ton,  or  $120 
per  acre,  at  the  least.  Two  tons  per  acre  of  hay  would  be  only  worth 
$30.  The  seed,  manure  and  cultivation  of  a  crop  of  mangels,  at  the 
utmost,  need  not  exceed  S80  jier  acre,  even  whei'e  the  manure  is  pur- 
chased at  a  high  jjrice.  The  crop  for  feeding  jim-poses  is  therefore 
a  protitable  one,  even  under  these  cii'cumstances. 


Tlie  cultiu-e  of  turnips  differs  in  no  respect  fi-om  that  of  mangels, 
except  as  to  the  time  of  sowing — the  Swedish  tui-nip,  or  Ruta  Baga, 
sown,  in  this  latitude,  from  ilay  25th  to  June  2.5th;  the  Yellow  Aber- 
deen, or  strap-leaved  kinds,  fi-om  July  1st  to  the  middle  of  August. 


Tdrnips. 


GS 


The  distance  apart  may  be  the  same  as  for  mangels,  but  both  varie- 
ties may  be  sown  a  month  later;  that  is,  the  Ruta  Bagas  maj'  be  sown 
from  June  25th  to  July  25th,  and  the  strap-leaved  kinds  from  the 
midtUe  of  August  to  the  middle  of  September.  In  this  case  the 
jjlauts  should  stand,  both  in  the  rows  and  between  plants,  one-third 
closer.  The  best  kinds  are  American  Ruta  Baga  and  Piui^le-top 
Swede,  of  the  strap-leaved  kinds,  Red-toji  and  Yellow  Aberdeen. 
Perhaj^s  the  best  of  all  turnips,  after  the  Swedes,  is  the  "White  Cow- 


I3n'BO\i;D  AJIEEICiK  BUIA  BAGA. 


COWHOBN  TTntNIP. 


horn,  a  long,  thin  root,  but  veiy  sweet  and  tender,  and  unexcelled 
■  for  cows,  as  it  grows  very  quickly  and  may  be  sown  in  September. 
I  value  Ruta  Bagas,  as  compai-ed  with  hay  at  S15  per  ton,  at  $5  per 
ton;  an  average  crop  of  twenty-five  tons  per  acre  is  thus  worth  $125. 
Strap-leaved  and  YeUow  Aberdeen  or  Cowhorn  turnips  are  worth 
$3. 50  per  ton,  or,  with  a  yield  of  thirty-five  tons  per  acre,  $122. 50.    If 


64 


How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 


the  expense  of  culture  is  luilf  the  whole  value,  the  crop  is  still  very 
profitable.  Turnips  may  be  sown  ujjou  a  barley,  oats  or  rye  stubble, 
or  even  after  potatoes. 


CARKOT.S  AND  PARSNIPS. 

The  cultiue  of  these  two  roots  is  precisely  the  same.  Pai-snips, 
however,  are  hardy,  ami  can  be  left  iu  the  ground  all  the  winter,  so 
that,  if  required  for  use  in  the  simng,  they  may  be  gathered  then, 


Cakkots  and  Pahsnips.  65 

■when  it  is  found  convenient  to  do  so.  This  root  is  an  excellent  one 
for  daily  cows,  and  is  extensively  grown  in  the  islands  of  Jersey  and 
Guernsey  for  this  purpose. 

CaiTots  are  chiefly  grown  for  horses,  but  I  consider  them  inferior 
to  Ruta  Bagas  for  that  purpose.  Carrots  requu-e  a  similar  soil  and 
the  same  preparation  as  for  mangels.  In  a  iDreviously  well  manured 
com  stubble,  enough  fertilizing  material  will  be  left  to  manui'e  a 
good  croj)  of  carrots  or  parsnips.  Twenty  tons  of  carrots  jjer  acre 
have  been  grown  on  land  in  this  condition,  without  using  any 
manure.  The  seed  is  sown  anj'  time  in  May;  if  sown  with  a  diill, 
about  four  pounds  are  used  to  the  acre.  The  rows  should  be  two 
feet  apart,  and  the  plants  thinned  out  to  five  or  sis  inches.  An  aver- 
age crop  is  fifteen  tons,  or  700  bvishels  by  measure,  of  the  Long 
Orange.     This  variety  is  the  one  usuallj'  grown  for  farm  piu'poses. 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  ROOTS. 

(Mr.  H.)  The  simple  and  cheap  method  of  preserving  roofs  in  pits 
in  the  open  ground  is  better  than  any  other.  I  will  brieflj'  describe 
our  plan,  which  I  have  practiced  with  all  kinds  of  market  garden 
roots  for  twenty-five  years.  Mangels  in  this  section  of  the  country 
are  dug  up  toward  the  end  of  October,  or  just  after  our  first  shght 
frosl ;  they  are  then  temporarily  secured  from  severe  frosts  by  placing 
them  in  convenient  oblong  heaps,  say  three  feet  high  by  six  feet  wide, 
and  ire  covered  v\-ith  tlu-ee  or  four  inches  of  soil,  wliieh  wUl  be  suffi- 
cient protection  for  three  or  four  weeks  after  lifting  ;  by  that  time, 
say  the  end  of  November,  thej'  may  be  stowed  away  iu  their  perma- 
nent winter  quarters.  For  tiu'nips  and  carrots  there  is  less  necessity 
for  the  temjjorary  pitting,  as  they  are  much  hardier  roots,  and  may 
be  left  in  the  ground  untU  the  time  necessary  for  permanent  pitting, 
if  time  will  not  jjermit  of  seciu'iug  them  temporarily.  The  advantage 
of  this  temporary  pitting  is,  that  it  enables  them  to  be  quickly 
secured  at  a  season  when  work  is  usually  pressing,  and  allows  theu' 
permanent  pitting  to  be  extended  into  a  comjsaratively  cold  season. 
This  is  found  to  be  of  the  utmost  importance  in  jJreserving  all  kinds 
of  roots  ;  the  same  rules  regulating  the  preservation  in  winter  apply 
as  in  spring  sowing.  "N^Tiile  in  this  section  of  the  country  it  must  be 
done  not  later  than  the  end  of  November,  in  some  of  the  Southern 
States  the  time  may  be  extended  a  month  later,  while  in  the  j)laces 
where  the  theiTnometor  does  not  fall  lower  than  twenty-five  degi-ees 
above  zero,  there  is  no  need  to  dig  up  any  of  these  roots  at  aU,  as  that 


66  How  THE  Faism  Pays. 

degree  of  temperature  would  not  injure  them.  The  permanent  pit 
ia  made  as  follows: 

A  piece  of  ground  ia  chosen  where  no  water  will  stand  in  winter. 
If  not  naturallj'  drained,  provision  must  be  made  to  cai-rv  off  the 
water.  The  pit  is  then  dug  four  feet  deep  and  six  feet  wide,  and  of 
any  length  required.  The  roots  are  then  evenly  packed  in  sections 
of  about  four  feet  vride,  arroKs  the  jjit,  and  only  to  the  height  of  the 
ground  level.  Between  the  sections  a  space  of  half  a  foot  is  left, 
which  is  filled  up  with  soil  level  to  the  top.  This  gives  a  section  of 
roots  four  feet  deep  and  wide,  and  four  feet  long,  each  section  divided 
from  the  next  by  six  inches  of  soU,  forming  a  series  of  small  pits, 
holding  fi-om  six  to  twelve  baiTels  of  roots,  one  of  which  can  be  taken 
out  ^rithout  distui-biug  the  next,  which  is  separated  fi'om  it  by  six 
inches  of  soil. 

(Ml-.  C. )  Scotch  farmers  have  a  method  of  kee2>iug  roots  in  long 
pits  which  I  have  used  here  for  many  years.     A  dry  spot  is  selected, 


where  no  water  will  stand  iu  winter;  a  space  is  marked  out  six  feet 
in  width,  and  of  any  length  required  ;  this  bed  is  excavated  ten  to 
twelve  inches  deep,  and  the  soil  is  thrown  out  on  the  bank.     The 


MAKNEn  OF  COV 


roots  are  built  up  evenly  to  a  sharp  point  about  five  or  six  feet  in 
height,  so  that  they  fonn  almost  an  equal-sided  triangle,  six  feet  on 
the  sides.  This  heap  of  roots  is  covered  with  foiu-  inches  of  straw 
and  the  earth  is  banked  over  the  whole  about  one  foot  in  thickness. 


Stordjct  Roots.  67 

This  covering  of  earth  and  straw  is  sufficient  to  keep  out  any  cold 
that  is  not  much  below  zero.  In  colder  or  warmer  sections  judgment 
must  be  used  to  increase  or  lessen  the  covering.  In  providing 
against  an  excessive  cold,  the  covering  of  straw  is  to  be  increased,  and 
not  the  earth,  as  the  straw  is  really  the  non-conductor.  Vents  or 
chimneys,  made  by  a  three-inch  drain-pipe,  or  anything  of  similar 
size,  are  placed  every  six  or  seven  feet  along  the  top  of  the  pit,  resting 
on  the  roots,  so  that  the  moisture  and  heat  may  escape.  In  extreme 
cold  weather  these  vents  or  chimneys  should  be  closed  up,  as  the  cold 
might  be  severe  enough  to  get  down  to  the  roots.  Pits  so  constructed 
rarely  fail  to  presence  roots  perfectly  until  late  in  spring,  and  are  in 
every  respect  preferable  to  root  cellars  ;  for,  no  matter  how  cold  the 
weather  may  be,  they  are  easily  got  at ;  the  ends  once  opened,  the 
soil  forms  a  frozen  arch  over  the  pit.  Hundreds  of  tons  of  mangels, 
etc.,  may  be  put  in  a  long  pit  of  this  kind. 

There  are  two  or  three  points  that  you  make,  IVIr.  Henderson,  that  I 
think  might  be  improved  upon.  When  you  state  that  in  the 
absence  of  stable  manure,  bone  dust,  superphosphate  or  guano 
should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  three  to  five  hundred  pounds 
per  acre,  I  would  saj'  that  in  my  practice  I  have  found  in  recent 
years  that  1,000  pounds  of  any  of  these  fertlizers  is  not  too  much. 
Again,  when  you  sj)eak  of  digging  the  mangels  up  I  think  you  advise 
unnecessary  labor,  as  mangels  can  be  pulled  up  without  trouble,  our 
practice  being  as  follows:  One  man  takes  two  rows.  Having  asharj) 
knife  in  the  light  hand,  he  catches  hold  of  the  top  of  the  root  with 
the  other  and  pulls  it  up  fi'om  the  ground,  cuts  the  top  off  and  lets  the 
root  drop  into  the  furrow  at  his  right  hand,  the  top  being  dropjied  to  the 
left.  By  this  means  two  men  have  taken  up  forty  cart  loads  per  day,  each 
cart  holding  thirty-two  bushels  of  sixty  pounds  per  bushel.  With 
reference  to  yoiu-  system  of  preserving  in  winter,  I  can  give  you  no 
better  evidence  of  its  practical  value  than  by  showing  you  to-day 
(11th  of  July)  sound  roots  that  were  placed  in  my  root  pits  last  fall, 
grown  somewhat,  to  be  sure,  but  stiU  in  good  condition  to  feed  to 
hogs. 

Q.  In  this  article  nothing  has  been  said  about  thinning  the  plants 
of  mangels,  turnips  or  carrots.  Will  you  please  state,  Mr.  Crozier, 
what  is  yoiu-  method  of  thinning  the  crop  in  the  drills  ? 

A.  I  use  a  ten-inch  draw  hoe.  The  man  standing  partly  sideways, 
shoves  his  hoe  from  him,  and  then  drawing  it  back  cuts  out  the 
width  required,  thus  leaving  the  plants  in  small  bunches  ten  inches 
apart.  It  is  an  operation  that  is  done  very  rapidly.  Two  men  by 
this  method  can  thin  or  single  out  an  acre  per  day.  In  a  few  days 
the  plants  left  will  again  straighten  up.     We   leave   the  thinnings 


68  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

in  the  rows,  of  course,  which  in  a  sliort  time  make  the  very 
best  vegetable  manure  by  being  stirred  and  worked  by  the  cul- 
tivator. For  mangels  it  is  necessary  to  thin  to  single  plants 
by  hand  afterwards.  Turnips  are  thinned  in  the  same  manner, 
but  hand  thinning  is  not  necessary  if  the  hoeing  is  well  done. 
CaiTots  are  thinned  exactly  the  same  way,  but  with  what  is  known 
as  the  caiTot  hoe,  which  is  not  over  half  the  width  of  that  ussd  for 
mangels  or  turnips.  From  the  nature  of  the  carrot,  it  is  not  so 
easily  singled  out  to  one  plant  as  tui-nips,  and  it  is  necessary  to  run 
over  the  rows  with  the  hands  after  the  hoe,  to  thin  out  so  as  to  leave  the 
crop  standing  about  five  inches  apart  between  the  plants.  I  obsen'ed, 
Mr.  Henderson,  also,  that  in  your  remarks  on  root  crops  you  have 
neglected  to  impress  the  necessity  of  fii-ming  the  soil  after  sowing, 
which  in  our  practice,  in  addition  to  the  roller  following  the  di'ill,  we 
follow  after  with  a  heavy  two-horse  ii'on  roller  eighteen  inches  in 
diameter,  which  covers  three  rows  at  a  time. 

WHEAT  CULTURE. 

Q.  The  method  of  raising  wheat,  I  presume,  is  so  well  known,  that 
coinp.aratively  little  can  be  said  about  it.  In  a  work  of  this  kind, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  touch  on  all  subjects  connected  with  the 


SMOOTHING  AND  BnUSH  HARROW. 


farm,  and  this  of  course  with  the  others.     Is  wheat  much  grown  on 
Long  Island  and  vicinity  ? 

A.  Yes,  I  think  there  is  as  much  wheat  grown  on  Long  Island  as 
corn.  "\Mien  wheat  is  to  follow  corn  my  method  of  culture  is  as 
follows  :  The  land  being  plowed  about  the  middle  of  September,  the 
manui-e  is  spread,  thorouglily  haiTOwed  in,  and  wheat  sown  broad- 


Necessity  for  Heavv  Manuring.  69 

cast  at  the  rate  of  one  and  one-lialf  to  two  bushels  to  the  acre.  It 
is  then  plowed  under  about  tlu'ee  inches  deep  with  a  hght  one-horse 
plow.  If  seeded  to  grass  the  surface  is  rolled  before  the  grass  seed 
is  sown,  and  harrowed  with  a  chain  harrow  or  brush  haiTow.  The 
brush  harrow,  as  it  is  well  understood,  is  an  imj)rovised  harrow 
made  by  the  farmer,  consisting  of  branches  about  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long,  which  are  driveu  into  holes  bored  in  a  inece  of  scantling  ten 
feet  long  and  attached  in  the  usual  way  to  the  whiffletree.  The  harrow 
shown  above  answers  as  a  smoothing,  leveling  and  brush  harrow,  and 
is  convenient,  cheap  and  useful  for  many  purposes,  and  is  a  good 
substitute,  sometimes,  for  the  roller. 

I  have  put  on  as  high  as  eight  cords  or  twenty-four  tons  per  acre. 
Of  coui-se  the  object  of  this  heavy  manuring,  as  has  been  referred  to, 
is  not  so  much  for  the  wheat  crop,  as  it  would  cost  more  than  the 
product,  but  it  is  for  the  after  crop  of  grass. 

If  this  manure  had  to  be  purchased  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
it  would  cost  $72  per  acre,  which  of  course  is  more  than  double  what 
the  wheat  crop  would  sell  for,  but  it  will  be  understood  that  the  crop 
of  wheat  is  never  expected  to  pay  for  the  manure.  It  is  the  after 
crop  of  grass  that  we  are  laying  the  foundation  for,  and  here  is  where 
the  profit  of  this  heavy  manuring  comes  in.  The  straw  from  the 
wheat  we  consider  about  pays  for  the  labor  of  sowing  and  harvesting 
the  crop.  It  will  be  understood  that  this  heavy  manuring  for  a  wheat 
croj)  that  is  to  be  succeeded  by  grass,  is  only  on  fields  where  oats  or 
corn  have  been  gi'own  the  year  previous.  If  a  root  crop  had  been 
grown  the  pre^'ious  year,  which  is  our  usual  custom,  there  would  be 
no  necessity  for  manui-ing,  as  the  heavy  manuring  used  for  the  root 
crop  is  ample  to  carry  a  crop  of  wheat  and  grass  for  succeeding  years. 

(Ml'.  H.)  This  work  of  spreading  manui'e  is  a  slow  and  laborious 
one.  There  is  an  excellent  machine  made  for  this  purpose  which 
saves  the  greater  part  of  this  labor.  It  breaks  up  and  scatters  the 
maniu-e,  no  matter  how  coarse  it  is,  and  spreads  it  much  more  evenly 
than  it  could  be  done  by  hand,  and  with  great  rapidity.  I  think 
the  invention  of  this  machine  is  a  very  valuable  aid  to  oui-  agricultiu'e. 
It  will  spread  from  five  loads  up  to  twenty  loads  per  acre,  and  forty 
loads  is  an  easy  day's  work. 

Q.  Is  it  not  the  custom  generally  amongst  wheat  growers  on  a  large 
scale  on  the  prairies  or  in  the  extensive  wheat  lands  of  CaUfornia  to  use 
the  wheat  di-ills,  instead  of  sowing  broadcast,  as  you  advise? 

A.  Yes.  They  do  not  care  so  much  for  the  grass  there.  The 
wheat  crop  is  what  they  ai-e  after.  They  sow  whatever  crop  they  can 
mai-ket  to  best  advantage,  and  that  is  wheat.  But  we  are  working 
under  different  circumstances. 


70 


How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 


Q.  "\Miy  cannot  the  drill  be  followed  by  grass  as  -well  as  -when 
sown  broadcast? 

A.  For  the  reason  that  the  drill  leaves  a  furrow  after  it  which  the 
prass  seed  drops  into,  leaving  a  cleai'  space  of  five  or  six  inches 
between  the  rows  of  grass,  which  would  be  too  wide.  By  plowing  the 
seed  wheat  under  we  get  an  even  sui-faee  for  the  grass. 

Q.  Then  you  mean  to  say  that  bj-  drilling,  you  could  not  get  as 
heavy  and  even  a  crop  of  grass  as  l\v  sowing  the  wheat  broadcast, 
plowing  it  under  and  sowing  the  grass  seed  after  in  the  usual  way? 

A.  We  could  not.  By  plowing  in  the  seed  we  get  a  unifonn  surface 
over  the  wheat,  and  having  this  smooth  surface  for  the  grass  seed,  we 
get  a  much  better  stand. 


KEMPb  UAXrRE  SI  BEAD t 


Q.  When  foUowiug  corn  with  wheat  at  about  what  date  do  you 
begin  to  plow? 

A.  We  commence  cutting  our  corn  about  tlie  1st  of  September 
nnd  clear  it  oft"  the  field,  placing  it  in  shocks,  either  on  an  adjacent 
gi-ivss  lot,  or  by  the  fences,  so  as  to  get  the  land  cleai-  for  sowing  the 
wheat,  which  we  generally  put  in  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  of 
September. 

Q.  This  is  your  experience  with  the  wheat  crop  following  corn. 
Does  it  difier  in  any  way  when  ihe  wheat  follows  potatoes  ? 

A.  Yes.  The  potato  land  having  been  thoroughly  manured  in  the 
spi-ing,  and  well  cidtivated  by  the  use  of  tlie  cultivators  and  plow,  I 
do  not  manure  for  the  wheat  crop.  The  land  is  usually  in  such 
good  condition  that  it  does  not  need  additional  manure  for  the 
wheat;  with  too  much  manure  wheat  grows  rank  and  weak,  and  is  apt 
to  fiUl  down  and  lodge,  and  the  crop  is  then  iujui-ed. 


Cultivation  of  Wheat. 


71 


Q.  Do  you  make  any  difference  in  the  time  of  sowing  wheat  follow- 
ing potatoes  and  that  following  corn  ? 

A.  After  potatoes  we  get  it  in  about  the  10th  of  September,  and 
we  thus  get  a  stronger  stand  or  I  would  say  "braird,"  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  roots  in  winter.  This  word  "  braird  "  is  very  significant 
and  useful;  it  means  the  young  growth  of  any  crop  fi-om  seed. 

Q.  I  notice  that  after  sowing  the  wheat,  when  you  brash  harrow 
in  the  gi'ass  seed,  you  do  not  make  any  mention  of  using  the  roller 
after? 

A.  It  is  not  necessary,  except  occasionally  when  it  is  very  dry;  the 
rains  usually  at  that  season  being  sufficient  to  wash  down  the  seed, 
and  comi^act  the  soil  so  as  to  cause  germination.  If  we  have  any 
reason,  however,  to  apprehend  a  continuation  of  dry  weather,  then,  as 
in  aU  other  such  cases,  the  roller  is  applied. 

Q.  It  is  not  possible,  I  presume,  for  you  to  get  a  wheat  crop  after 
mangels  or  turnips  without  jjlowiug  too  late  ? 


A.  The  best  wheat  crop  I  ever  raised — I  do  not  at  present  exactly 
remember  the  number  of  bushels,  but  I  think  it  was  over  fifty  per 
acre — was  put  in  between  the  mangel  rows  in  the  autumn  before  the 
mangels  had  been  taken  off  the  gi-ound.  The  wheat  was  sown  and 
put  in  with  the  cultivator  about  the  20th  of  September,  and  the 
quahty  of  the  crop  was  so  good  that  it  was  all  engaged  by  a  New 
York  seed  fii-m  for  seed.  When  the  mangels  were  pulled  the  tops 
were  left  on  the  wheat.  Early  in  the  spring  I  put  on  a  large  ii-on 
haiTow,  haiTOwed  both  ways  and  sowed  with  lucern,  roUed  it  both 
ways,  so  that  the  land  was  thoroughly  firmed. 

Q.  In  sowing  the  wheat  between  the  rows  of  mangels  in  the  fall,  as 
you  state  having  done,  was  it  possible  to  get  a  uniform  crop  over  the 
surface?  I  can  understand  how  it  might  be  evenly  distributed 
between  the  rows,  but  on  the  rows  dii-ectly  were  there  not  spaces  left? 

A.  Yes.     I  have  counted  as  many  as  sixty  spears  from  one  grain 


72  How  THE  Faum  Pays. 

wbii-li  hiul  spread  or  ' '  stooled,  '  aud  I  am  of  the  opiniou  that  we 
can  raise  more  wheat  in  that  way  than  bv  any  other  process;  that  is, 
by  cultivation.  The  cultivation  of  wheat,  in  trials,  cleai-ly  shows  this, 
aud  if  I  were  making  wheat  my  general  crop,  I  would  by  all  means 
sow  in  drills  seven  to  nine  inches  ajjai-t,  and  cultivate  it;  but  grass 
being  mj'  staple  crop,  I  have  no  occasion  to  do  so. 

Q.  You  say  you  sowed  the  wheat  on  the  mangels  about  the  20th  of 
Sept.    At  what  date,  do  you  i-emember,  were  the  mangels  harvested? 

A.  I  think  about  the  usual  time,  the  middle  of  November,  or  per- 
haps it  might  have  been  tlie  end  of  November.  Any  time  before 
frost  will  serve  for  hai-vesting  mangels,  and  we  generally  leave  that 
until  the  last  work  in  the  tields. 

Q.  Was  there  no  injury  done  to  the  wheat  by  the  leaves  of  the 
mangels  shading  it? 

A.  I  ratlier  think  it  improved  it,  as  the  shade  for  the  "  braird  " 
seemed  to  be  a  protection  until  strong  enough  to  take  care  of  itself. 
As  the  season  advanced,  as  j-ou  are  aware,  the  leaves  of  the  mangels 
withered,  and  shaded  less,  so  that  by  the  time  they  were  ready  to 
take  off,  the  young  wheat  plants  were  relieved  of  the  shade,  and  in 
pulling  u)3  the  mangels  just  euough  soil  came  up  with  them  to  make 
a  nice  top  dressing  for  the  wheat.  The  tops  of  the  mangels  also  were 
sjjread  as  a  mulch  over  the  wheat. 

Q.  How  late  have  you  ever  sown  youi-  wheat  iu  the  fall  in  the 
vicinit}'  of  New  York? 

A.  I  sowed  a  piece  of  wheat  tlie  latter  end  of  December  of  last  year. 

Q.  'What  advantage  was  there  in  sowing  it  at  a  date  when  there 
could  be  no  germination  until  spring  ? 

A.  My  reason  for  sowing  it  at  that  season  was  that  I  was  slack  of 
work  and  the  gi-ound  was  in  good  condition,  and  I  wanted  to  top- 
dress  the  piece  of  land  that  I  sowed,  as  it  was  in  the  centre  of  a 
twenty-two-acre  lot  seeded  down  with  grass  on  both  sides,  aud  I 
wished  to  make  the  whole  field  uniform. 

Q.  What  was  the  result  of  this  late  sowing  ? 

A.  It  lay  dormant  until  early  spring,  but  when  the  weather  opened, 
it,  of  course,  was  ready  for  germination  long  before  I  could  have  pre- 
pared the  ground  for  spring  wheat,  aud  the  result  of  the  crop  is  that 
to-day  (12th  July)  it  is  nearly  ready  to  cut,  being  only  about  ten  days 
later  than  that  sown  at  the  usual  time.  It  is  not  what  we  would 
call  a  good  crop,  nor  yet  a  poor  one,  but,  I  think,  will  be  a  fair  yield. 

Q.  But  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
case — that  you  wished  to  get  a  uniform  field  of  grass — j-ou  wovdd 
not  have  sown  the  wheat  at  that  late  date,  in  preference  to  spring 
sowing,  would  you  ? 


Habvesting  Wheat.  73 

A.  No;  it  was  simply  a  matter  of  convenience. 

Q.  Under  what  conditions  do  you  usually  sow  youi-  wheat  in 
"the  spring  ? 

A.  I  seldom  ever  sow  spring  wheat;  it  does  not  pay  in  this  vicinity. 
The  straw  is  too  weak,  which  is  one  of  the  great  difficulties  in  wheat 
raising. 

Q.  In  what  sections  of  the  country,  do  you  know,  is  spring  wheat 
grown  with  success  ? 

A.  It  is  grown  to  a  great  extent  in  Canada,  to  some  extent  in  Wis- 
consin, Michigan  and  northern  Iowa,  and  wholly  in  Minnesota,  and 
further  north  and  west — the  conditions  necessary  to  success  being  a 
low  temperature  at  its  first  stages  of  growth. 

Q.  When  wheat  is  sown  in  the  spring  is  it  usual  to  sow  grass 
with  it? 

A.  Yes;  just  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  fall. 

Q.  I  think-  I  heard  you  drop  the  remark  that  you  pastured  your 
wheat  in  the  sjsring  (after  it  had  well  started  to  grow)  with  sheep. 
What  was  the  advantage  of  that? 

A.  The  object  in  that  is  to  take  oti"  all  the  old  weather-beaten 
leaves  and  to  feed  it  down  as  close  as  we  possibly  could,  and  the 
treading  of  the  sheep  compacts  the  roots  of  the  wheat,  while  their 
droppings  seiwe  as  a  top  dressing  for  it.  This  of  course  can  only  be 
done  on  Ught  soils:  on  wet  or  sticky  clay  land  it  would  be  an  injury. 

Q.   At  about  what  time,  in  your  vicinitj-,  do  you  turn  on  the  sheep  ? 

A.  Just  as  soon  as  the  fi'ost  or  snow  is  gone,  and  allow  them  to  re- 
main until  the  end  of  April.  Then  we  haiTow  with  a  light  harrow  so 
as  to  stir  the  surface,  after  which  we  roll  thoroughlj',  being  careful  at 
that  time,  of  course,  that  the  land  is  dry  enough,  so  that  there  may 
be  no  danger  of  dragging  the  roots  of  the  wheat  out  of  the  ground. 

Q.  "Wliat,  in  your  opinion,  is  the  best  stage  of  the  wheat  for 
hai'\'esting? 

A.  I  always  cut  my  wheat  a  week  ahead  of  most  of  my  neighbors, 
and  p>vit  it  in  shocks  or  "  stocks,"  using  a  caj)  sheaf,  as,  in  my  expe- 
rience, the  grain  by  this  process  fiUs  out  in  the  shocks  during  that 
jieriod  of  time.  If  let  stand  until  riise  the  grain  shrinks.  Wheat 
should  alwaj's  be  cut  before  the  grain  becomes  hard,  and  when  you 
can  easily  crush  it  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  or  about  the  stage 
when  the  milk  disappears,  and  the  grain  becomes  firm,  but  not  hard. 

Q.  Is  it  usual  in  your  vicinity  for  wheat  to  be  put  up  in  stacks  or 
placed  in  barns,  or  is  it  threshed  in  the  field  ? 

A.  I  put  my  wheat  in  stacks  in  the  field  or  in  baiTacks  so  as  to 
"sweat"  it.  As  soon  as  it  is  through  the  process  of  sweating,  I  thresh 
it.     The  threshing  is  done  by  two-horse  tread  jjower. 


74  How  THE  Faum  Pays. 

Q.  On  yoiu"  liigh  priced  lands  and  limited  areas,  as  compared  with 
the  Western  and  other  wheat  fields,  how  do  you  tind  wheat  to  pay  as 
a  farm  crop  ? 

A.  It  does  not  pay,  because  the  manure  and  labor  necessary  cost 
too  much,  as  we  have  to  manure  so  heavily.  But  we  sow  wheat  only 
to  prepare  for  the  after  crop  of  grass.  I  raised  last  year  forty 
bushels  per  acre,  but  the  average  in  this  section  of  the  country  is  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  bushels.  About  81.25 per liushel  is  afair  average 
price  for  this  section,  then  the  straw  is  worth  about  $15.00  per  acre. 
I  sell  no  Btraw,  but  buy  all  I  can  get  in  this  neighborhood  at  a  fair 
value  to  use  as  bedding  for  cattle. 

Q.  Are  there  any  special  varieties  of  wheat  that  you  prefer  to 
others'? 

A.  I  think  that  it  was  in  187G,  when  in  Eui-ope,  I  brought  back  with 
me  six  bushels  of  a  variety  called  Champion  wheat.  This  I  think 
was  in  paii  the  cause  of  my  average  of  forty  bushels  per  acre.  The 
same  wheat  is  now  grown  for  miles  ai'ound  here.  It  weighed  when 
I  got  it  sixty-five  pounds  per  bushel;  last  year  it  fell  to  sixty-one 
pounds,  and  this  experience  confirms  me  in  the  opinion  that  I  have  long 
helil:  that  change  of  wheat,  as  well  as  any  other  seed,  should  be  made 
annually,  as  it  is  a  benefit  to  the  crop. 

Q.  Would  you  make  any  preference  in  changing  from  Europe  or  to 
locahties  in  the  United  States  ? 

A.  No;  I  would  much  rather  get  my  seed  wheat  from  Ohio  or 
Pennsylvania  than  from  Europe,  if  I  could  get  it  as  pure,  but  more 
care  is  certainly  taken  in  Britain  to  keep  varieties  pure  and  true, 
than  we  do  in  this  country.  The  best  farmers  of  England  and 
Scotland  are  so  careful  when  they  gi'ow  for  seed,  that  men  are  sent 
through  the  fields  with  sheai's  to  cut  out  all  heads  that  are  not 
considered  to  be  true  and  genuine.  By  this  precaution  a  uniformity 
is  secured  that  cannot  be  obtained  in  any  other  way. 

(Mr.  H.)  I  can  well  understand  the  necessity  of  that.  In  our 
business  as  seedsmen  we  have  seeds  grown  in  difliertnt  sections  of 
the  country,  and  we  find  it  necessary  to  have  men  devoted  especially 
to  the  pui-poso  of  examining  the  crops — particular  care  being  taken 
with  crops  such  as  peas,  that  are  moi'e  liable  to  degenerate  from  the 
tme  types — to  see  that  all  "  rogues,"  as  they  are  called,  or  such 
plants  as  are  of  a  different  variety,  are  weeded  out. 

Q.  Under  this  head  of  Rotation  of  Crops,  I  will  ask  the  question, 
Mr.  Crozier,  whether  in  your  section,  or  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  it 
is  ever  the  practice  to  let  one  wheat  crop  follow  another? 

A.  No;  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  follow  such  crops  as  wheat  or 
corn  year  after  year  on  the  sanie  land,  and  wheat  particularly  being 


Prevention  of  Rust  and  Smut.  75 

a  gi-eat  feeder,  the  land  would  soon  be  exhausted.  Another  reason 
is,  and  it  is  true  of  a  great  many  other  crops,  that  when  one  of  the 
same  kind  is  continuously  sown  there  is  far  more  danger  of  injury  hj 
insects  or  blight,  as  it  seems  to  be  a  law  of  natvu'e  that  special 
plants  are  subject  to  the  ravages  of  special  insects  or  diseases,  and 
the  best  way  to  get  rehef  fi'om  their  attacks  is  to  change  the  eroj)  as 
radically  as  possible  from  one  kind  to  another;  thus  I  would  follow 
after  a  wheat  crop  with  grass,  or  if  that  is  not  used,  I  would  succeed 
it  with  beans,  peas  or  some  such  cultivated  crop. 

Q.  Have  you  had  any  trouble  with  diseases  such  as  rust  or  smut, 
or  from  insects  or>.  wheat? 

A.  No;  but  where  such  trouble  is  apprehended,  the  best  preventive 
I  know  is  to  soak  the  seed  in  strong  brine  for  ten  to  twelve  hours, 
after  which  au-slaked  lime  should  be  mixed  thi-ough  it  in  quantity 
sufficient  to  di-y  the  seed.  The  midge  occasionally  attacks  wheat 
when  sown  in  the  fall,  but  not  much  in  our  section.  I  have  under- 
stood that  in  western  New  York  its  ravages  have  been  so  great  that 
farmers  have  been  compelled  to  give  up  growing  wheat,  and  after  two 
years,  duiing  which  the  growth  of  wheat  was  suspended,  the 
midge  has  disappeai-ed  for  twenty  years  afterwards.  This  proves,  as 
you  previously  remarked,  the  benefit  of  rotation.  In  regard  to  mst 
and  smut,  these  are  not  troublesome  in  this  vicinity,  and  I  attribute 
this  exemption  to  i^roximity  to  the  sea;  for  that  reason  I  would  ad\'ise 
in  sections  inland,  where  there  is  no  saline  atmosphere,  if  danger  of 
rust  is  apprehended,  to  use  from  two  to  three  hundred  jiouuds  of 
salt  per  acre,  at  time  of  the  sowing. 

(^Ir.  H.)  I  believe  a  very  common  and  effective  remedy  is  to  steep 
the  seed  in  a  solution  of  four  ounces  of  sulphate  of  copper  in  a  gallon 
of  water,  this  being  enough  for  four  bushels  of  seed. 

Q.  Although  the  army  worm  is  not  a  special  wheat  insect,  yet 
as  that  crop  has  suffered  gi-eatly  fi'om  its  ravages  on  Long 
Island,  what  has  been  your  most  effectual  remedy  in  preventing  its 
attacks  ? 

A.  I  have  found  a  sure  and  certain  protection  against  it  by 
plowing  ditches  eighteen  inches  wide,  by  about  ten  deep,  ai-ouud  my 
wheat  fields,  and  strewing  lime  in  them  to  prevent  the  insect  from 
crossing.  To  attain  the  same  end,  straw  saturated  with  kerosene 
may  be  thrown  in  the  ditches  and  ignited,  but  I  do  not  consider  that 
as  good  as  Ume,  because  after  the  straw  is  biu-ned  there  is  nothing 
then  to  prevent  the  worm  crawling  \ip  on  the  other  side  of  the  ditch, 
while  the  hme,  if  carefully  spread  on  so  as  to  make  an  unbroken  line, 
really  is  a  time  dead  hne  against  then-  fui'ther  approach.  The  Western 
method  in  similar  cases  is  to  i^low  such  a  ditch,  and  as  the  insects 


76  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

gather  in  it  to  drag  a  log  along  it  to  crush  them  and  loosen  up  the 
soil,  the  loose  soil  itself  being  a  barrier. 

Q.  In  your  vicinity  what  other  crops  are  attacked  by  the  army 
■worm,  besides  wheat  ? 

A.  It  seems  to  give  preference  to  oats  and  grass,  com  and  root 
crops  being  little  injiu'ed  by  it. 


OAT  CULTURE. 

Q.  How  do  oats  compare  with  wheat  as  a  profitable  crop  V 

A.  It  is  a  more  i^rotitable  crop  to  me,  as  a  stock  raiser,  than  wheat. 
My  method  is  to  cut  my  outs  while  in  the  milky  state,  for  the  jjui-jiose 
of  feeding  dry  in  the  form  of  hay.  I  have  grown  considerable  oats 
on  sod  land  that  had  been  j^astiu'ed  some  yeai's  pre\"iou.s.  This  I  con- 
sider the  best  land  for  ^jrodueiug  heavy  oats,  but  it  does  not  produce 
so  good  a  crop  of  straw.  Such  land  should  be  broken  in  the  spring, 
as  eai-ly  as  the  gi'ound  will  admit.  It  should  be  plowed  to  a  depth 
of  five  inches,  the  sod  being  turned  under  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degi'ees.  I  think,  if  my  soil  was  a  clay,  I  would  plow  the  sod  in 
the  faU. 

Q.  Is  this  plowing  not  shallower  than  the  usual  practice  ? 

A.  Yes  ;  and  the  reason  for  it  is  tliat  the  laud,  having  been  pas- 
tured for  years  previous,  has  accumulated  cow,  horse  and  sheep 
manure,  which  I  want  as  near  the  surface  as  possible ;  and  there  is 
the  sod,  besides,  which  is  better  than  all.  Oats  is  a  crojj  that  does 
not  root  deeply,  foi-ming  a  sort  of  shallow,  tufted  root. 

Q.  "Why  do  you  laj'  the  sod  over  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degi'ees  ? 

A.  It  then  forms  an  angle  or  fuiTow  into  which  the  seed,  when 
sown,  falls,  and  works  down  in  the  space  where  the  sods  lap,  and 
thus  gets  the  benefit  of  the  surface  maniu'e  as  well  as  of  the  decaying 
sod.  The  seed  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  four  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
the  land  is  then  thoroughly  harrowed  and  rolled.  Oats  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  diy  enough  to  be  worked. 

Q.  Is  there  not  some  danger  of  the  harrow  puUing  up  the  sod  ? 

A.  There  would  be  if  it  were  haiTowed  crosswise;  but  the  harrow 
is  iTin  lengthwise  of  the  fuiTow,  and  in  this  manner  draws  the  soil 
into  the  crevices  between  the  sods  without  tearing  them  up,  after 
■which  we  follow  with  the  roller.  Of  this  croj)  I  have  taken  off 
sixty-five  bushels  per  acre,  weighing  thirty-eight  pounds  per  bushel. 
The  seed  was  imported  potato  oats.  If  marketed,  the  product 
would  have  brought  fifty  cents  per  bushel.  After  the  oats  had 
been  harvested,  which  wjis  about  the  middle  of  Julv,  the  ground 


Profitable  Crops  from  Ten  Acres.  77 

"was  jjlowed,  harrowed,  aad  drills  opened,  tlirea  and  one-half 
feet  ajiart,  for  fodder  corn.  Manure  was  placed  iu  Ihese  drills  to  the 
depth  of  thi'ee  or  four  inches.  Planted  with  White  Southern  Corn 
at  the  rate 'of  two  bushels  to  the  acre,  lightly  covered,  and  cultivated 
with  a  one-horse  cultivator  once  a  week  untO.  about  foiu'  feet  high,  no 
more  labor  being  required  until  cvu-ing  time.  This  late  planted 
second  crop  is  not  so  productive  as  the  general  fodder  corn  crop, 
which  3'ields  with  me  about  eight  tons  of  dry  fodder  per  acre. 
Part  of  the  same  land  where  the  oats  were  grown  was  used  for  late 
or  fall  cabbage,  and  Cowhorn  and  Aberdeen  turnips.  The  cab- 
bage was  planted  out  in  rows  i5rej)ared  in  about  the  same  manner 
as  for  the  fodder  corn.  The  rows  were  opened  by  the  plow  and  a 
good  fork  full  of  maum'e  which  had  been  made  thi-ough  the  summer 
was  dropped  two  feet  apart,  and  covered  with  a  hoe.  The  j^lants 
being  in  the  seed  bed  and  strong,  were  well  watered  and  lifted  with 
a  dung  fork  so  as  not  to  injvu'e  the  roots.  The  work  of  planting  the 
cabbage  was  done  late  in  the  afternoon.  The  hUls  were  opened  with 
the  corner  of  a  sharp  hoe,  the  plant  set  iu,  some  soil  drawn  over  it 
with  the  hand,  and  then  stamped  or  firmed  with  the  heel  of  the  boot. 
In  a  few  days,  when  the  cabbage  had  straightened  up,  the  soil  was 
drawn  around  the  plants  with  the  hoe.  Once  more  hoeing,  and  run- 
ning the  plow  through  the  furrows,  was  all  the  work  they  required. 
In  haiwesting  the  cabbage,  a  deep  fuiTow  or  trench  was  plowed,  the 
cabbage  j)ulled  by  the  roots  and  tiu'ned  into  the  trenches  as  close  a.s 
they  could  be  packed  together.  (See  article  on  Cabbage.)  My 
maniu-e  being  all  consumed  iu  that  portion  of  the  field  where  I  had 
planted  the  fodder  corn  and  cabbage,  I  had  to  resort  to  bone  meal 
for  the  turnijjs,  which,  however,  I  consider  the  most  valuable  fer- 
tilizer for  that  crop.  This  is  used  in  the  drills  at  the  rate  of  300  lbs. 
the  acre.  Drills  were  opened  with  a  two-horse  plow  to  the  depth 
of  nine  inches,  the  bone  dust  was  sown  on  the  back  of  the  furrow 
and  the  next  furrow  covered  it  to  a  dejjth  of  two  or  thi-ee  inches.  The 
turnips  were  di'illed  in  with  a  one-horse  drill,  taking  two  rows  at  a 
time,  at  the  rate  of  two  jDOunds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  The  growth  was 
so  quick,  that  in  two  weeks  we  went  through  the  field  singling  or 
thinning  them.  By  "  singhng  "  is  meant  thinning  to  one  plant.  This 
croi3  I  believe  produced  over  thii'ty-five  tons  jjer  acre,  and  left  the 
ground  in  tar  better  condition  than  it  was  when  I  commenced  in  the 
spring.  The  value  of  the  turnip  crop,  if  sold,  would  have  been  $3.50 
per  ton.  Thus  we  see  that  on  the  ten  acres  with  which  I  stai-ted  in 
the  spring  by  sowing  a  crop  of  oats,  I  obtained  a  net  profit  of  more 
than  $800,  as  shown  by  the  table  given,  and  this  after  counting  the 
labor.     It  will  be  seen  that  I  paid  $1.00  per  bushel  for  the  imported 


78  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

potato  oats,  while  tlie  jiroduct  was  sold  for  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  but 
if  I  had  not  so^^ti  this  imported  seed,  I  would  probably  not  have  had 
more  than  half  the  yield  per  acre.  Consequently  it  is  evident  that  it 
was  economy  to  use  the  hij^fh  priced  seed. 

PRODL'CT  OF  TEN  ACRES. 

Value  of  Oat  Crop,  650  bushels $325.00 

Oat  Straw,  10  tons 150.00 

Fodder  Corn,  5  acres,  40  tons 200 .  00 

Cabbage,  2^  acres 175 .  00 

Turnips,  2i  acres,  87^  tons 306 .  25 


$1,156.25 


EXPENSES. 


Plowing,  harrowing  and  rolling $30 .  00 

Cost  of  oat  seed  for  10  acres 40 .  00 

HaiTesting  and  tlu-eshing  oats 45 .  00 

Manui-e  for  fodder  corn ...    100 .  00 

Hai-vesting  fodder  corn 12 .  00 

Seed 8.00 

Manure  for  2i  acres  cabbage 50.00 

Planting,  cultivating  and  han'esting 30.00 

Cabbage  seed 2.00 

lilaniu-iug  for  2  S  acres  turnips 10 .  00 

Sowing,  cultivating  and  hai-vesting 25 .  00 

Interest  on  value  of  laud 30 .  00 

$382.00 

Net  profit 774.25 


$1,156.25 


Q.  In  this  estimate  you  have  made  no  charge  for  yoiu-  own  work  and 
skill  iu  superintendence.  I  pi'esume,  with  your  experience,  if  your 
services  were  hired  to  another  man  on  a  farm  of  200  acres  they  would 
be  worth  at  least  $10  per  day.  Would  it  not  be  fair  to  charge 
sometliing  for  the  time  you  have  spent  in  this  superintendence, 
against  this  estimate  ? 

A.  No.  The  profit  made  on  these  crops  represents  the  value  of  my 
time  and  work,  and  not  only  the  vidue  of  my  own  work,  but  the 
increased  vidue  which  my  sujierintendeuce  and  direction  gives  to  the 


Deterioeation  of  Seed.  79 

work  of  ruv  hiied  workmen.  I  consider  it  a  great  mistake  when  a 
farmer  has  half  a  dozen  men  employed  on  different  2:>aiis  of  the  farm 
to  use  his  own  time  in  manual  labor,  because  it  is  only  by  ijroper 
direction  and  supervision  that  he  can  make  the  work  of  each  man  of 
the  fullest  value. 

(Mr.  H.)  In  relation  to  that  matter  of  importing  oats,  Mr.  Crozier, 
I  had  recently  a  conversation  with  Mr.  Wm.  Saunders,  Super- 
intendent of  the  Experimental  Department  of  the  Agricultural 
Bureau  at  Washington,  in  which  he  stated  to  me  that  he  imported 
from  Scotland  for  his  experiments,  I  think,  a  variety  known  as  Hope- 
toun  oats,  which  averaged  forty-four  pounds  per  bushel.  The  first 
year  after  sowing,  the  product  deteriorated  to  forty  pounds  per 
bushel;  that  product  being  sown  the  second  year,  deteriorated  still 
further  to  thirty-five  pounds  per  bushel,  which  again  being  sown 
was  still  fm-ther  reduced  to  the  normal  condition  of  American  oats 
of  thirty  pounds,  or  less,  per  bushel.  These  facts  suggest  the  query 
whether  it  would  not  pay  our  farmers  to  imi^ort  their  seed  oats,  in 
order  to  get  this  Luij)roved  quality  and  j)roduct.  In  my  ojiinion  there 
is  no  other  way  to  do  it;  for  no  matter  how  carefully  the  selection  of 
seed  is  made,  deterioration  -n-ill  take  place  when  a  croj)  is  grown 
under  circumstances  uncongenial  to  it,  as  is  the  case  with  oats  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  other  warm  climates,  the 
nature  of  the  jslant  requiring  a  long  season  of  growth,  which  can  only 
be  had  in  cool,  moist  localities.  A  Hfe-time  spent  in  the  practical 
study  of  horticultm-e,  which  is  near  akin  to  agriculture,  has  forced 
me  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  acclimatization 
of  plants.  The  maize  of  the  American  continent  resists  all  attempts 
to  bring  the  croj)  to  matimty  in  the  climate  of  Great  Britain,  while 
the  oat  gives  comparatively  abortive  results  when  gi'own  in  oiu: 
half-tropical  summers.  Don't  you  think  it  would  pay  to  import  seed 
oats  from  Britain,  so  as  to  gain  an  advantage  in  the  weight  and 
product  the  first  season  here  ? 

A.  Yes;  I  think  it  would.  I  think  imjioi-ted  seed  could  be  sown 
two  seasons  to  advantage.  I  have  had  seed  oats  fi-om  Nova  Scotia, 
where  the  weight  nins  from  thiiiy-eight  to  forty  pounds  per  bushel, 
and  planted  them  side  by  side  with  oats  which  I  raised  myself,  pre- 
paring the  ground  in  the  same  manner  for  both,  and  the  Nova  Scotia 
oats  produced  from  eight  to  ten  bushels  per  acre  more  than  the 
common  oats.  Whether  it  was  from  the  larger  size  of  the  imported 
oats  or  the  change  of  cUmate  I  am  unable  to  say.  Probably  both 
causes  had  something  to  do  with  it;  for  there  it  is  well  proven  that 
change  of  seed  of  almost  any  farm  crop  is  advantageous.  To  sum  up : 
imported  seed  oats,  costing  even  as  much  as  $2  per  bushel,  wiU  add 


80  How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 

one-fiftli  or  one-foui-th  to  the  product  Hence  it  will  always  be  the 
most  profitable  to  use  such  seed. 

Q.  Ai'e  oats  ever  affected  with  diseases? 

A.  lu  some  unfavorable  years  oats  are  affected  more  or  less  with 
rust,  but  of  late  years  smut  has  appeared  very  extensively  in  the  oat 
crop,  iu  some  locaUties  almost  destroying  it.  Upon  this  account  it  is 
advisable  to  treat  seed  oats  in  the  same  way  as  has  been  recom- 
mended on  a  pi'evious  page  for  wheat. 


Q.  Is  barley  gi-own  to  any  extent  in  New  York  or  adjacent  States  ? 

A.   Not  to  a  great  extent. 

Q.   Have  you  had  any  experience  with  it  on  Long  Island  ? 

A.  I  have  sowed  bai'ley  several  times,  but  did  not  find  it  to  be 
a  paying  crop.  The  straw  is  not  of  much  value  for  bedding  on 
account  of  the  beards,  which  are  sometimes  injurious  when  eaten,  pai'- 
ticularly  by  sheep.  Its  culture,  however,  is  wholly  a  question  of  soil; 
it  wants  a  deeper  and  heavier  soil  than  oats,  as  the  roots  strike  deeper. 
Barley  is  grown  to  a  great  extent  in  western  New  York,  and  some 
places  further  west,  and  in  Canada,  to  supply  brewers.  In  Euro])e 
it  was  formerly  grown  for  food,  but  has  not  been  much  grown  in  the 
last  ten  yeai-s,  since  our  wheat  has  come  so  largely  into  use.  It  yields 
from  thii-ty-live  to  fifty  bushels  per  acre,  but  seldom  lirings  more  than 
eighty  or  ninety  cents  per  bushel.  There  are  a  few  special  points  in 
its  culture  which  requu-e  attention  or  a  full  crop  cannot  be  grown. 
The  soil  must  be  in  good  condition,  well  plowed  and  harrowed,  and 
clean ;  fall  plowing,  followed  by  a  thorough  working  by  the  Acme 
harrow,  or  other  cultivator,  in  the  spring.  The  seed,  at  the  rate  of 
two  to  two  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre,  is  sown  as  early  as  the 
ground  is  dry.  In  harvesting,  the  greatest  cai-e  is  necessary  to  avoid 
damage  by  rains,  as  this  sjioils  the  color  of  the  gi'ain  and  unfits  it  for 
the  brewer's  use,  and  seriouslj'  reduces  its  value.  Barley  is  not 
bound  in  sheaves,  but  cured  in  the  swath  and  lifted  by  broad 
wooden  forks  known  as  barley  forks.  This  may  be  considered  as  one 
of  those  special  crops  fitted  for  special  soils  and  circumstances  onlj', 
and  is  only  profitable  when  the  crop  can  be  perfectly  well  gi-own. 

CULTURE   OK  RYE. 

Q.  In  what  waj'  does  the  culture  of  rj'e  differ  fi'om  that  of  oats  ? 

A.  "We  can  sow  rj'e  on  our  jioorest  land ;  but  when  grown  on  rich 
land  it  is  a  valuable  crop,  in  some  cases  giving  fi-om  thirty  to  thirty-tive 
bushels  prr  acre,  which  sells  at  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cents  i)er 


CuLTDRE  or  Rye — Beans.  81 

bushel  less  than  wheat.  The  straw  being  valuable  for  various  purposes, 
is  shipped  to  the  cities  in  large  quantities.  A  great  deal  of  rj'e  is  cut  in  the 
spring  while  green  as  our  first  soiling  crop,  the  laud  being  immediately 
plowed  and  prej)ared  for  corn.  This  year  a  farmer  in  my  neighbor- 
hood cut  ofi'  ten  acres  of  rj-e,  planted  the  ground  in  cucumbers  for 
pickles  and  intends  following  with  a  wheat  crop  in  the  fall,  thus 
•  placing  three  crops  in  the  ground  in  one  season,  as  the  cucumbers 
only  take  up  about  three  months,  and  will  jiay  a  profit  of  $100  jser 
acre  after  all  labor  and  expense  has  been  j)aid,  I  have  known  the 
straw  of  matured  rye  to  produce  two  tons  per  acre,  which  brought 
$20  per  ton  in  New  York  City.  In  the  neighborhood  of  paper  mills 
rye  straw  brings  from  $25  to  $30  f)er  ton  and  is  largely  grown  for  this 
purpose.  As  a  bread  grain  it  is  next  to  wheat  in  value,  and  i^erhaps 
really  more  nutritious.  Rye  is  largely  used  by  farmers  to  seed  down 
with  in  the  fall,  and  I  think  it  is  jsreferable  to  wheat  for  this  pui'pose, 
when  about  one  and  one-half  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  is  used,  as  it 
protects  the  young  grass  through  the  winter  and  matures  earlier  the 
following  summer,  being  generally  cut  two  weeks  in  advance  of 
wheat,  thus  allowing  the  grass  to  have  freer  growth  at  a  season  of 
the  year-  when  it  grows  very  rapidly,  and  also  making  good  jjastm-e 
in  the  fall.  As  a  soiling  croj)  it  will  be  fuUy  referred  to  ia  the 
chapter  devoted  to  that  subject. 


THE   CULTURE   OF  AMERICAN   FIELD  BEANS. 

Q.  What  soU,  in  your  opinion,  Mr.  Crozier,  is  best  adajited  to  the 
American  field  bean  ?  I  use  this  distinction  because  of  the  fact  that 
in  every  book,  and  in  nearly  every  paper,  where  beans  are  referred 
to,  it  is  the  English  bean  that  is  mentioned,  and  not  our  bean,  which 
is  an  entii-ely  different  j)lant.  The  Enghsh  bean,  as  you  are  aware, 
is  used  for  feeding  horses  only,  while  ours  is  whoUy  used  for  human 
food.  The  plant  which  bears  the  English  bean  has  a  single  straight, 
stift'  stem,  which  bears  several  short,  thick  pods,  each  containing  fovu- 
or  five  brown-skinned,  hard,  kidnej'-shaped,  thick  beans,  as  long  and 
wide,  but  twice  as  thick,  as  our  large  white  beans. 

A.  Light,  gravelly  sods,  which  can  hardly  be  made  available  for 
any  other  crop,  wiU  give  a  fan-  j'ield  of  beans.  They  are  a  crojj  that 
we  plant  after  all  other  work  in  the  spring  is  done.  The  land  is 
plowed,  harrowed  and  fiuTowed  out  thirty  inches  apart,  and  about 
two  bushels  of  beans  sown  to  the  acre,  by  hand  or  seed  drill.  "^ATaen 
drilled,  the  seeds  are  dropped  about  eight  inches  ajjai-t ;  when  planted 
by  hand  it  is  usual  to  put  thi'ee  or  four  together  at  eighteen  inches 


82 


How  THK  Fakm   I'avs. 


apart  ill  the  rows.  Tbey  do  not  require  miieli  iiianiire,  or  tliev  will 
gi'ow  too  much  to  vines.  Wc  cover  very  litfhtly,  never  allowing  them 
to  be  cultivated  or  hoed  in  damp  weather.  If  worked  in  damp 
weather  they  will  rust  or  "damjjoff";  but  in  dry  weather  weekly 
cultivation  for  the  first  month  should  be  <:fiven.  No  more  work  is 
then  required  until  the  l>eans  are  ready  to  be  haiTested.  The  usual 
way  is  to  pull  tliem  up  by  hand  and  stack  them  around  a  pole  eig-ht 
i)r  nine  feet  hiij;li,  which  is  stuck  in  the  {ji-ound.  In  this  way  they 
may  be  left  until  taken  to  the  barn  and  threshed  and  cleaned.  Hai-- 
vesting  beans  by  hand  is  a  slow  work  and  may  do  veiy  well  for  small 
plantations.  But  when  they  ai-e  gi-oiiNTi  lai'gely,  as  they  ai'e  in  some 
localities,  where  forty  or  fifty  acre  fields  of  them  are  not  unusual,  a 
machine  is  used  for  gathering  them.  This  ingenious  invention, 
which  is  the  work  of  a  fai'mer  in  New  York  State,  is  shown  in  the 
accomjianj-ing  engraving.     It  j^ulls  the  beans,  shakes  the  soil  from 


the  roots  and  leaves  the  beans  iu  rows  behind  it.  It  is  drawn  by  one 
horse,  which  walks  between  the  rows.  Two-horse  machines  are 
made,  which  pull  two  rows  at  once.  Beans  usually  bring  iu  market 
from  $2  to  $3  per  bushel.  I  have  taken  forty  bushels  per  acre  oH' 
such  land  as  above  described.  I  may  say,  however,  that  there  is 
considerable  labor  attendant  upon  the  raising  of  tliis  crop,  both  in 
the  cultivating  and  tlu'cshing  and  cleaning  for  market,  as,  lieing  used 
for  human  consumption,  the  sample  requires  to  be  perfect.  But  in 
the  winter  season,  if  they  can  be  hand-picked  at  idle  times,  they  are 
quite  a  ])rofitable  crop.  There  is  always  a  good  demand  for  the 
Marro-wfat  Bean.  The  "Pea  Bean."  as  it  is  called,  is  smaller,  but 
similar  to  the  !MaiTowfat,  is  a  better  fielder  and  brings  a  better  price, 


Buckwheat.  83 

and  is,  in  my  opinion,  more  ilesii'able.  It  is  of  recent  introduction. 
There  is  also  the  Navy  Bean,  used  for  naval  stores,  and  the  Red 
Kidney  Bean,  which  brings  usually  twice  as  much  as  the  white  beans 
in  the  market;  but  as  the  demand  for  this  variety  is  limited,  the 
market  is  easily  overstocked.  It  is  a  matter  of  economy  in  threshing 
beans  to  save  the  straw  and  j)ods,  which  are  nutritious  fodder  for 
sheep  and  are  readily  eaten  by  them. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

(Mr.  C. )  Buckwheat,  although  a  grain  of  less  importance  than 
some  of  the  others,  yet  takes  its  place  among  farm  crops.  It  can  be 
sown  after  barley,  rj-e  or  oats  are  harvested,  the  ground  being  imme- 
diately plowed,  haiTowed  and  about  three  pecks  of  seed  sowed  to  the 
acre,  and  the  ground  thoroughly  rolled.  This  crop  being  grown  at  a 
season  of  the  year  when  the  ground  is  often  dry  for  weeks,  the  rolling 
which  we  have  before  insisted  upon  in  many  places  in  this  work  is 
absolutely  imperative,  or  the  crop  will  fail  to  germinate.  Buckwheat, 
though,  not  a  large  producing  crop,  is  often  sown  just  to  keep  the  laud 
in  use  for  a  j)artial  cro])  rather  than  to  grow  a  crop  of  weeds.  The 
straw  is  worth  nothing  but  for  litter  ;  the  grain,  as  is  well  known,  is 
used  largely  for  human  consumption.  It  is  also  excellent  food  for 
fattening  swine,  and  poultry  prefer  it  to  all  other  grains.  A  great 
many  farmers  plant  largely  of  this  crop  to  plow  under  as  a  green 
manure.  I  myself  did  so  some  twenty  j'eai's  ago  on  a  twentj'-acre 
lot  where  the  crop  had  grown  so  strongly  that  I  was  forced  to  roll  it 
before  I  could  plow  it  under.  I  am  of  the  O23inion  that  it  was  an 
injury  to  the  field,  as  it  did  not  produce  good  croj^s  for  two  or  thi'ee 
years  afterwards. 

Q.  In  what  way  do  you  consider  it  to  have  been  injurious? 

A.  Why,  I  do  not  know,  I  only  marked  the  results ;  but  I  was  so 
well  satisfied  with  that  experiment  that  I  would  not  again  risk  another 
trial.  Many,  I  am  aware,  claim  it  is  a  valuable  crop  for  plowing 
under,  and  I  may  be  wi'ong  in  my  conclusions  from  one  trial,  but  I 
think  not. 

(Ml-.  H.)  I  cannot  see  why  yoiu-  experience  in  this  way  should  have 
been  so  contrary  to  the  general  view  and  practice.  I  don't  know  of 
any  reason  why  any  vegetable  matter  plowed  into  the  soil  could  be 
other  than  useftil. 

(Mr.  C.)  Buckwheat  is  a  rather  2:)eculiar  crop,  and  requii-es  par- 
ticular care  in  hanesting  and  thi-eshing  it.  It  has  the  habit  of 
bearing  ripe  and  half-matiu'ed  seed  and  blossoms  and  buds  all  at  the 
same  time.     The  seed,  too,  is  held  hv  a  verv  slender  stalk,  which 


84  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

snaps  very  easily  -when  it  is  dry  ;  upon  tliis  account  it  is  cut  early  in 
the  day,  when  the  dew  is  on  it.  For  these  reasons,  the  newly  har- 
vested grain  is  moist  and  needs  thorough  drying.  'Vrhen  it  is  cut  it 
is  raked  up  in  gavels,  which  are  not  bound  in  sheaves,  but  are  set  up 
on  end  singly  to  dry.  'NMien  the  straw  is  dry,  the  crop  is  drawn  in 
and  threshed  directly  from  the  field,  and  the  grain  must  be  at  once 
winnowed  from  the  chafif,  or,  being  quite  moist,  the  chaff  vrill  heat  and 
spoil  the  grain.  A  dry,  windy  day  is  chosen  for  threshing.  The 
cleaned  gi-ain  also  requii-es  close  watching  to  avoid  heating  in  the  bin, 
and  it  is  usual  to  move  it  from  one  bin  to  another  on  a  di-y,  windy 
day,  or  shovel  it  over,  for  the  jDuiiiose  of  airing  and  drying  it.  Buck- 
wheat is  a  sort  of  special  crop,  and  as  the  tlour  is  used  chiefly  in  the 
\«nter,  the  grain  is  usually  sold  as  soon  as  it  is  thi-eshed.  By  doing 
this  a  higher  price  is  secured  and  all  the  dangei^s  of  keeping  it  are 
avoided.  There  are  four  varieties  of  this  grain  :  one  is  known  in 
northern  New  England  as  Indian  "Wheat  or  Merino  Buckwheat,  a 
small,  wrinkled,  dark,  inferior  grain  ;  the  othei-s  are  the  Black,  the 
Gray,  and  the  newly  introduced  Silver  Hull,  the  Black  being  inferior 
to  the  other  two. 


Crops  for  Souino  and  Fodder.  85 


CHAPTER  Y. 


CROPS  FOR  SOILING  AND  FODDER. 

(Mr.  C.)  The  first  of  these  in  importance  as  regards  time,  in  my 
opinion,  is  rye,  which  we  have  just  discussed  in  a  preceding  chai5ter. 
I  have  commenced  cutting  it  by  the  10th  of  May,  and  by  cutting  it 
■whUe  young,  or  say  three  feet  high,  if  wanted  to  cut  the  second  time 
in  about  three  weeks,  a  fau"  feeding  can  be  had,  which  will  supply 
the  wants  of  stock  until  lucern  or  clover  or  orchard  grass  is  ready  ; 
or  oats  and  jjeas,  which  are  ready  for  soiling  usually  by  the  20th  of 
June.  When  the  oats  and  peas  become  hard  or  dry,  fodder  corn 
which  has  been  planted  the  first  week  in  May  will  take  their  place, 
and  by  sowing  at  inteiTals  of  one  or  two  weeks  up  to  the  10th  of 
August,  will  give  a  continuous  supply  until  frost.  These  are  the 
dififerent  kinds  of  crops  used  for  soiling,  named  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  ready  to  use  for  that  purpose. 

Q.  I  observe,  Mr.  Crozier,  that  you  do  not  mention  having  used 
tares  or  vetches  for  soUiug  or  fodder. 

A.  I  have  tried  to  grow  vetches  for  two  seasons.  The  first 
season  I  imported  seed  of  the  Gray  Vetch  fi'om  England  and  it  was  a 
complete  failure.  Well  knowing  that  this  is  one  of  the  best  soiUug 
crops  in  Europe,  I  purchased  the  second  year  twenty  pounds  of  seed 
which  was  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  Montreal,  Canada.  This  was  a 
variety  of  Black  Vetch,  or  tare,  and  did  better,  but  was  not  satisfac- 
tory ;  and  hence,  as  far  as  my  experience  has  gone,  I  have  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  vetch  is  not  suited  for  our  latitude,  and  I 
doubt  much  if  it  will  be  found  suitable  for  any  part  of  America, 
■unless  it  be  the  extreme  northern  portion  of  Canada ;  or  j)ossibly 
in  the  Southern  States,  as  a  winter  crop,  for  which  the  -winter  variety 
would  undoubtedly  be  found  useful  to  supply  green  forage  or 
pasture.  I  have  also  tried  to  my  complete  satisfaction,  and  to  my 
sorrow  let  me  add,  the  Prickly  Comfiey,  which  I  consider  one  of  the 
biggest  fi'auds  that  ever  was  perpetrated  on  the  agricultui'al  com- 
munity. Whether  or  not  I  had  trained  mj  cows  by  careful  feeding 
to  be  somewhat  of  epiciu-es,  I  do  not  know,  but  certain  it  is  that 
they  turned  up  their  noses  at  the  Prickly  Comfrej'  and  would  have 
nothing  to  do  ivith  it. 


80  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

As  tlie  question  of  fodder  for  soiling  is  now  one  of  vast  importance 
to  the  breeder  of  fine  stock,  to  the  dairi-man,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
to  hiin  who  feeds  his  farm,  we  will  endeavor  to  give  as  brieHv  as 
possible  the  methods  of  culture  of  all  the  kinds  in  use. 


Where  this  crop  is  intended  for  soUing  early  in  the  sjjring,  it  should 
be  sown  the  latter  part  of  August  or  eaiiy  in  September,  on  very  rich 
land.  The  ground  should  be  thoroughly  plowed  and  haiTOwed,  but 
it  is  better  not  to  use  much  coai'se  manui'e,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to 
make  the  crop  gi-ow  soft  and  rank.  I  sow  for  soiling  two  bushels  of 
seed  per  acre,  as  the  ground  is  not  intended  to  be  seeded  down. 
This  will  be  fit  to  commence  cutting  by  the  10th  of  May,  before  it 
heads  out,  and  can  be  cut,  if  desired,  a  second  time,  giving  a  fail-  crop. 
I  think  an  acre  of  good  heavy  rye  will  feed  twenty  cows  for  one  week 
at  least,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  give  a  full  feed  at  first. 
My  plan  is  to  run  it  through  the  cutter  and  mix  it  with  di-y  hay  or 
good  wheat  straw  also  cut,  as  this  prevents  any  iujui'ious  eft'ect  upon 
the  bowels,  it  being  just  the  season  when  animals  are  changing  their 
coats,  as  every  animal  in  perfect  health  does  at  this  time.  .-Vs  a  feed 
for  milch  cows  it  produces  purer  milk  or  fat  than  any  other  soiling 
lilant  I  know  of,  when  fed  before  the  blossom  is  formed;  if  fed  later 
it  has  been  thought  injurious  to  the  butter,  but  I  never  feed  it  so  late 
as  that.  Its  earliness,  coming  in  at  that  season  between  haj'  and 
grass,  makes  it  very  valuable.  Rye  may  be  sown  in  succession  up  to 
November,  or  December  even,  increasing  the  quantity  of  seed  sown, 
as  the  time  is  later.  The  last  sowing  maj-  be  made  any  time  before 
the  ground  is  fi-ozen,  using  four  or  five  bushels  per  acre.  In  tliis 
case  the  seed  does  not  sprout  until  sjning,  and  makes  a  spring  crop, 
but  one  that  is  sown  much  eiu-lier  than  would  be  possible  any 
other  way. 


LUCERN. 

Q.  You  say  that  the  next  crop  that  you  use  for  soiling,  to  follow- 
after  rye,  is  Lucern,  or  Alfalfa,  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  You  gave 
me  some  data  a  few  montlis  ago,  which  I  have  used  in  a  rather 
exhaustive  article  on  that  subject,  which  we  will  insert  here,  after 
you  have  brielly  given  your  own  method  of  cultm-e. 

(^Ir.  C. )  The  land  selected  for  Lucern  should  be  a  rich,  deep, 
sandy  or  gravelly  loam,    where   there  is  no  fear  of  water  standing. 


Crops  for  Soilin'o  and  Fodder — Alfalfa.  87 

The  land  is  plowed,  then  harrowed  and  rolled,  early  in  the  spiing.  Then 
I  sow  at  the  rate  of  sixteen  jjounds  to  the  acre.  It  is  sown  broad- 
cast and  covered  with  the  brush  harrow  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
ground  will  admit  being  worked.  For  a  soihng  crop  I  do  not  use 
any  mixtures.  I  sometimes  cut  it  earlj'  in  the  fall,  getting  a  fair  crop. 
I  have  even  cut  it  the  second  time  in  the  fall  of  the  same  season  as 
sown,  but  that  is  a  rare  occurrence.  The  next  season  I  have  taken 
three  or  four  cuttings  from  it.  After  reading  the  article  that  you  have 
written  on  this  subject  I  do  not  know  that  I  can  add  anything  to  it. 

CULTURE   OF   ALFALFA  OR  LUCERN   (MEDICAGO  SATH^l.) 
[Written  by  Peter  Henderson  on  his  return  from  atrip  to  Florida  in  February.  1S83.] 

In  a  country  so  wide-spread  and  diversified  as  the  United  States, 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  a  crop  that  is  valued  in  some  local- 
ities is  unknown  in  others. 

But  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that,  in  many  of  the  Southern  States, 
where  the  want  of  forage  is  so  much  felt,  the  culture  of  a  plant 
so  admu'ably  adapted  for  their  soil  and  climate  has  so  long  been 
neglected.  In  a  visit  to  Florida,  in  February,  1883,  I  was  impressed, 
as  every  Northern  man  must  be,  with  the  utter  dearth  of  forage 
plants,  and  as  a  consequence,  the  hungry  and  meagre,  starved  looking 
cattle.  To  my  inquiries  everywhere,  the  same  reply  was  given  that 
no  good  grass  or  clover  could  be  found  to  stand  the  heat  and  drought 
of  their  long  summers.  Fortunately,  in  aUuding  to  the  subject, 
while  in  the  company  of  Mr.  R.  Bronson,  of  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  he 
promptly  showed  a  practical  solution  of  the  difficulty,  by  taking  me 
to  a  j)atch  of  Alfalfa  about  twenty-five  feet  by  one  hundred,  or  only 
about  the  one-sixteenth  p)art  of  an  acre.  From  that  little  patch  Mr.  B. 
assured  me  that  he  had  fed  a  cow  during  the  summer  months,  getting 
as  fine  milk  and  butter  as  ever  he  got  North;  andfiuiher  said  that  twice 
that  area,  or  one-eighth  part  of  an  acre,  would  be  ample  to  supply  a 
cow  with  food  during  the  entire  season.  The  land  used  by  Mr. 
Bronson  for  his  expieriment  with  Alfalfa  was  identical  with  the 
thousands  of  acres  in  his  immediate  vicinity,  which  was  given  over  to 
the  Blue  Palmetto  and  scrubby  pines,  thi'ough  which  the  goat-like 
cattle  browse  out  a  miserable  existence.  Mr.  Bronson,  though  only 
an  amateur,  is  a  careful  observer,  and  an  enthusiastic  student  in 
everything  that  relates  to  agriculture.  In  the  culture  of  Alfalfa  for 
Florida  and  other  Southern  latitudes,  he  advises  that  the  crop  be 
sown  early  in  the  fall — early  enough  to  attain  a  height  of  four  or  five 
inches  before  growth  is  arrested  by  cold  weather,  in  Florida  say 
'rom  1st  to  1.5th  of  Octobei-. 


88  How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 

The  soil  best  suited  for  the  gi-owth  of  Alfalfa  is  that  which  is  deep 
anil  saudy ;  hence  the  soil  of  Florida  and  niauj-  other  portions  of  the 
cotton  belt  is  eminently  fitted.  The  plant  makes  a  tap  root  with  few 
laterals,  and  its  roots  are  often  found  at  a  depth  of  sis  to  eight  feet, 
thus  drawing  food  fi-om  depths  entirelj'  beyond  the  action  of  di-ought 
or  beat.  WTien  Alfalfa  is  to  be  grown  on  a  large  scale,  to  get  at  the 
best  results,  the  ground  chosen  should  be  high  and  level,  or  if  not 
high,  such  as  is  entirely  free  fi'om  under  water.  Drainage  must  be 
as  near  perfect  as  possible — either  naturally  or  artificially.  This  in 
fact  is  a  primary  necessity  for  every  crop — unless  it  be  such  as  is 
aquatic  or  sub-acjuatic. 

Deep  plowing,  thorough  haiTowing  and  leveling  with  that  valuable 
implement,  the  ' '  smoothing  harrow, "  to  get  a  smooth  and  level  sur- 
face, ai-e  the  next  operations.  This  should  be  done  in  the  Southern 
States  fi-om  1st  to  20th  October — or  at  such  season  in  the  fall  as 
would  be  soon  enough  to  ensiu'e  a  growth  of  four  or  five  inches 
liefore  the  season  of  growth  stops.  Draw  out  lines  on  the  prepared 
laud  twenty  inches  apart  (if  for  horse  culture,  but  if  for  hand  culture 
fourteen  inches),  and  two  or  three  inches  deej).  These  lines  are  best 
made  by  what  market  gardeners  call  a  ' '  marker, "  which  is  made  by 
nailing  six  tooth-shaped  pickets  six  or  eight  inches  long  at  the  required 
distance  apart  to  a  three  by  four  inch  joist,  to  which  a  handle  is 
attached — which  makes  the  marker  or  drag.  The  first  tooth  is  set 
against  a  garden  line  drawn  tight  across  the  field,  the  marker  is 
dragged  backwards  bj-  the  workman,  each  tooth  marking  a  Hne :  thus 
the  six  teeth  mark  six  lines,  if  the  line  is  set  each  time;  b\it  it  is  best 
to  jilace  the  end  tooth  of  the  uiiU'ker  in  a  line  ah-eady  made,  so  that 
in  this  way  only  five  lines  are  marked  at  once,  but  it  is  quicker  to  do 
this  than  move  the  line.  The  lines  being  mai-ked  out,  the  seed  is  sown 
by  hand  or  by  seed-drill,  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  twelve  pounds  per  acre. 
After  sowing — and  tliis  rule  applies  to  all  seeds,  if  sowni  by  hand — the 
seed  must  be  trodden  in  by  walking  on  the  lines,  so  as  to  press  the 
seed  down  into  the  drUls.  After  treading  in,  the  ground  must  l)e 
leveled  by  raking  ^vitll  a  wooden  or  steel  rake  along  the  lines  length- 
ways— not  across.  That  done,  it  would  be  advantageous  to  use  a 
roller  over  the  land,  so  as  to  smooth  the  surface  and  further  fii-m  the 
seed,  but  this  is  not  indisjiensable.  When  seeds  ai'c  drilled  in  by 
machine,  the  wheel  presses  down  the  soil  on  the  seed,  so  that  treading 
in  with  the  feet  is  not  necessary.  After  the  seeds  germinate  so  as  to 
show  the  rows,  whicli  will  be  in  from  two  to  four  weeks,  according  to  the 
weather,  the  ground  must  be  hoed  between,  and  this  is  best  done  by 
some  light  wheel-hoe,  if  by  hand,  such  as  the  "  Planet,  Jr. "  On  light 
sandv  soil,  such  as  in  Florida,  a  man  could  with  ease  inin  over  two  or 


Alfalfa,  or  Luceuk.  89 


ALFALFA,    OR  LCCERN   (>IEDICAGO   SATIVA). 


00  How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 

three  acres  per  day.  The  labor  entailed  in  this  method  of 
sowing  .-Ufalfa  in  drills  is  somewhat  greater  than  when  sown 
broadcast  in  the  usual  way  of  f^rasses  and  clover,  but  there 
is  no  question  that  it  is  bj'  far  the  best  and  most  profitable 
plan,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  plant  is  &  hardy  perennial, 
and  is  <;ood  for  a  crop  for  eight  to  ten  years,  iloreover,  the  sowing  in 
drills  admits  of  the  crop  being  easilj'  fertilized,  if  it  is  found  ueeessai'v 
to  do  so ;  as  all  that  is  necessary,  is  to  sow  bone  dust,  superphos- 
phates, or  other  concentrated  fertilizer  between  the  rows,  and  then  stir 
it  into  the  soil  by  the  use  of  the  wheel-hoe.  In  the  ground  of  Jlr. 
Brouson,  of  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  he  found  that  the  seed  sown  in 
the  middle  of  October  gave  him  a  crop  lit  to  cut  in  three  months 
after  sowing,  and  three  heavy  crops  after,  during  the  same  year; 
and  I  have  little  doubt  that  in  that  climate  and  soil,  so  congenial  to 
its  growth,  six  heavy  green  crops  could  be  cut  annually,  after  the 
plant  is  fairly  established,  if  a  moderate  amount  of  fertilizer  was 
used,  say  300  i)()uuds  of  superphosphate  or  bone  dust  to  the  acre- 
Mr.  WiUiam  Crozier,  of  Noithport,  L.  I.,  one  of  the  best  known 
farmers  and  stock  breeders  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  says 
that  he  has  long  considered  Alfalfa  one  of  the  best  forage  crops. 
He  uses  it  always  to  feed  his  milch  cows  and  breeding  ewes,  particu- 
larly in  prejiaring  them  k  r  e.Nhibitiou  at  fail's,  where  he  is  known  to 
be  a  most  successful  competitor,  and  always  takes  along  sufficient 
Alfalfa  hay  to  feed  them  on  while  there.  j\Ir.  Crozier's  system  of 
cultiu'e  is  broadcast,  and  he  uses  some  fifteen  or  sixteen  pounds  of 
seed  to  the  acre,  but  his  laud  is  unusually  clean  and  in  a  high  state  of 
cultivation,  which  enables  him  to  adopt  the  broadcast  plan;  but 
on  the  average  laud  it  will  bo  found  that  the  2>lan  of  sowing  in  drills 
woidd  be  the  best. 

Mr.  Crozier's  crop,  the  second  year,  averaged  eighteen  tons  green 
to  the  acre,  and  about  six  tons  when  diied  as  hay.  For  his  section — 
the  latitude  of  New  York — he  finds  the  best  date  of  sowing  is  first 
week  in  May,  and  a  good  cutting  can  be  had  in  September.  The 
nest  season  a  full  crop  is  obtained,  when  it  is  cut,  if  green,  three  or 
four  times.  If  to  be  used  for  hay,  it  is  cut  in  the  condition  of  ordinary 
red  clover  in  blossom;  it  then  makes  after  that  two  green  crops  if 
cut;  sometimes  the  last  one  instead  of  being  cut  is  fed  on  the  gi'ound 
by  sheep  or  cattle. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Sargent,  Macon,  Ga.,  writing  to  me  under  date 
March  (ith,  1883,  sajs  :  "  I  consider  Alfalfa  to  be  the  most  valuable 
forage  plant  that  can  lie  used  in  this  section  of  the  country — that  is, 
the  entire  cotton  l)elt,  or  north  of  it — if  the  laud  is  sandy  without  a 
clay  subsoil   too  near  (ho  surface.     Planters  are  just  beginning  to 


AuALFA  IN"  New  York  and  Geoeuu.  91 

find  out  its  merits,  aud  no  poverty  of  stock  will  ever  occur  where 
Alfalfa  is  raised.  In  the  summer  of  1881,  when  everything  else  was 
j)arched  here  with  heat  and  drought,  this  alone  was  prompt  in  its 
matui-ity  for  the  mower.  It  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  in  blossom, 
and  can  easily  be  cut  three  or  four  times  here,  wherever  the  land  is 
in  fairly  good  condition. 

"Those  who  do  not  succeed  with  it,  sow  it  broadcast  and  surrender 
it  to  the  hogs  early  in  the  season.  Those  who  do  succeed  sow  in 
drills,  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  cultivate  early." 

It  wOl  be  seen  that  Mr.  Sargent  advises  di-Uls  much  wider  than  we 
recommend,  wliich  I  presume  is  to  admit  the  horse-hoe,  but  a  quicker 
crop  undoubtedly  would  be  got  at  foiu'teen  inches  aj)ai-t,  and  by  use 
of  the  hand  wheel-hoe,  the  work  could  be  done  on  Ught  soil  nearly 
as  quickly  as  by  horse  cultivator. 

Alfalfa  is  extensively  grown  in  Europe,  particularly  in  France  and 
Germany,  where  it  is  considered  a  valuable  crop  for  rotation,  and  is 
classed  by  the  French  as  one  of  the  Plantes  Amelioranles  (restorative 
crops) ;  for  in  southern  France  wheat  has  been  successfully  raised 
after  six  or  seven  years  of  Alfalfa  on  ground  which  formerly  had 
failed  to  give  good  crops  of  wheat.  Although  Alfalfa  maj'  be  grown 
in  cold  latitudes  as  well  as  in  warm,  as  the  plant  is  entirely  hardy, 
yet  its  value  is  not  so  marked  in  cold  climates,  where  it  finds  competi- 
tors in  Red  Clover  aud  the  grasses;  but  in  light  soils,  anywhere,  j^arti- 
cularly  in  warm  climates,  its  deejj-rooting  properties  make  it  com- 
paratively independent  of  moisture;  hence  it  is  the  forage  jilaut  par 
excellence  for  the  Southern  Statts;  and  when  it  is  considered  that  im- 
mense sums  are  j)aid  annually  for  baled  hay,  by  the  Southern  to  the 
Northern  States,  not  only  for  the  hay  itself,  but  to  freight  it,  the 
wonder  is  how  long  they  will  continue  to  do  so,  with  the  material  at 
hand  to  produce  a  better  article  at  probably  oue-fomih  the  cost. 

At  the  date  of  our  writing,  thousands  in  Florida  and  other 
Southern  States  are  engaged  in  the  cultiu-e  of  oranges,  and  other 
fruits  and  vegetables,  for  the  Northern  markets — aud  while  in 
specially  favored  locations  success  has  attended  these  enterprises,  vet 
it  is  doubtful  if  one  in  four  makes  it  profitable ;  while,  with  the  culture 
of  this  valuable  forage  plant,  the  vast  sums  paid  for  Northern  hay 
would  not  only  be  saved,  but  the  products  of  the  dairy  would  assume 
an  importance  which  now,  among  most  farmers  in  the  extreme 
Southern  States,  is  altogether  unknown. 

Q.  If  you  were  confined  to  one  of  these  two  crops,  Mr.  Crozier, 
which  would  you  prefer  to  grow  in  your  latitude,  clover  or  lucern  ? 

A.  As  a  general  crop  I  would  use  clover,  because  my  land  is  better 
suited  to  it  than  it  is  to  lucern. 


92  How  THE  Fakm  Pats. 

(Mr.  H.)  That  is  just  the  reason  I  asked  the  question,  because, 
from  tlie  nature  of  the  roots  of  the  plaut,  I  sliould  judge  that  it  was 
more  titted  to  the  sandy  soils  of  Florida  and  other  Southern  States, 
than  to  most  of  the  loamy  or  gravelly  soils  of  our  Northern  States. 
The  appearance  that  it  presented  to  me  gro-w'ing  in  luxuriance  at 
St.  Augustine,  indicated  that  on  such  a  soil  the  roots  must  have 
penetrated  to  a  gi-eat  depth,  or  such  vigorous  growth  could  not  have 
been  shown.  I  should  say  that  on  such  lands  as  at  Yineland,  N.  J., 
or,  in  fact,  anj'where  where  the  soil  is  loose  enough  that  you  could 
push  a  walking  stick  down  to  the  dejith  of  two  or  thi-ee  feet,  would 
be  the  soil  for  lucern. 

Q.  Is  there  any  peculiaiity  in  the  method  of  cming  it  for  hay  ? 

A.  I  think  it  is  more  easily  cui-ed  than  clover  hay,  for  the  reason 
that  the  stems  are  less  succulent  than  those  of  clover. 

Q.  Is  any  j^reference  given  to  it  by  cattle  over  clover,  either  in  a 
drj'  or  green  state '! 

A.  Cattle  prefer  lucern  to  any  other  crop  I  have  ever  fed,  and  I 
believe  it  to  be  as  nutritious  as  any  other  ;  the  only  reason  I  do  not 
use  it  exclusively  is,  that  some  portions  of  my  land  are  not  suited  to 
its  gi'owth  as  well  as  to  that  of  clovei'. 


CLOVER  AND  GRASS. 

Q.  "WTiat  is  your  method  of  culture  for  clover  and  grass  mixed? 

A.  The  ground  is  jirepared  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  sown  to 
wheat  or  rye.  In  the  spring  we  sow  two  bushels  of  orchard  grass 
and  twenty  pounds  of  Mammoth  Clover  Seed,  mixed,  per  acre.  The 
wheat  or  rye  being  first  well  rolled  in  the  spring,  the  mixture  of 
clover  and  grass  seed  is  then  sown  and  the  ground  again  rolled.  In 
the  fall  a  light  cutting  is  made,  wliich  shoidd  not  l)e  taken  off,  but  left 
on  the  ground  to  protect  the  roots  fi-om  fi-eezing  through  the  winter. 

Q.  Then  I  understand  that  it  is  your  practice  never  to  cut  the  crop 
the  first  season  of  its  growth,  unless,  as  you  say,  a  light  cutting  in 
the  fall  ?     "What  advantage  is  there  in  making  that  cutting  in  the  fall  V 

A.  It  protects  the  roots  of  the  grass  and  young  clover  through  the 
winter  fi-om  fi-eezing  and  thawing.  If  it  were  taken  off  the  field,  it 
would  leave  the  roots  so  exposed  that  the  frost  in  some  soils  would 
thi'ow  them  out. 

Q.  "Would  not  the  protection  of  the  plant  uncut  be  as  good  as  the 
protection  given  by  its  being  cut  and  left  on  the  gi-ouud?  I  can 
understand  where  the  advantage  might  be  as  a  mulch  if  it  could  l)e 
distributed  by  the  mower  as  to  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground 
evenly. 


Crops  for  Soiling  and  Foddek — Clover  ajjd  Grass.  93 

A.  The  mower  mil  leave  it  level  over  the  ground,  and  thus  afford 
a  useful  protection  for  the  roots.  Besides,  the  cutting  of  the  grass 
leaves  the  siuiace  smooth  and  clear  for  the  first  spring  cutting. 
Otherwise  the  dead  grass,  if  uncut,  would  be  in  the  way  of  the 
mower. 

Q.  As  this  matter  is  a  very  important  one,  I  should  further  ask  j'ou 
to  give  as  near  the  date  as  possible  at  which  you  cut  and  the  height 
you  cut,  supposing  the  clover  and  grass  to  be  one  foot  high  ? 

A.  I  cut  from  the  1st  to  the  10th  of  October,  and  raise  the  machine 
fully  four  inches  high,  leaving,  as  I  have  before  said,  the  crop  on  the 
ground  as  a  mulch.  The  young  shoots  of  the  orchard  grass  and  clover 
strike  through  it  very  early  in  the  spring — so  early  that  I  had  to  begin 
cutting  my  general  crop  this  year  on  the  9th  of  June,  for  hay.  I 
could  only  use  it  for  a  soihng  crop  for  about  one  week,  as  lucern 
lasted  up  until  the  time  the  clover  was  in  blossom. 

Q.  "What  is  the  advantage  of  mixing  the  orchard  grass  in  the  clover 
for  soihng  ? 

A.  The  reason  is  that  the  orchard  grass  has  the  habit  of  growing 
in  bunches,  and  the  clover  fills  the  vacant  spaces  and  adds  very  much 
to  the  yield.  Another  reason,  the  orchard  grass  prevents  the  clover 
from  falling  down.  A  third  reason,  I  know  that  cattle  are  fond  of 
mixed  foods.  A  still  fiuiher  reason,  and  the  most  important  of  all, 
is,  that  orchard  grass  and  clover  come  into  blossom  at  the  best  time 
for  cutting. 

PEAS  A^^D  OATS. 

Another  crop  that  I  have  used  with  great  satisfaction  for  soiling  is 
peas  and  oats,  mixed.  This  is  what  some  farmers  call  a  "  stolen  " 
crop,  because  it  is  so  cpiick  in  its  growth  and  matures  so  early 
that  it  is  slipped  in  between  crops  and  is  off  in  seven  or  eight  weeks; 
and,  besides,  it  cleans  the  land  and  prepares  it  for  a  crop  of  turni2:)8 
or  fodder  corn.  I  plow,  harrow  and  sow  the  peas  about  the  end  of 
March,  and  not  later  than  the  15th  of  April,  putting  on  three  bushels 
of  oats  and  two  bushels  of  peas  to  the  acre,  sowing  broadcast  on  the 
rough  ground  after  plowing.  The  reason  for  sowing  on  the  rough 
gi-ound  before  han-owing  is  that  it  gets  the  seeds  deeper,  which  is  a 
necessity,  pai-ticularly  with  the  peas.  I  would  mention  here  that  it 
is  difficult  to  haiTow  in  peas,  and  would  suggest  the  use  of  the  Acme 
haiTOW  to  cover  in  this  crop.  After  harrowing  the  ground  is  rolled 
in  the  usual  manner,  which  answers  the  double  purpose  of  firming 
it  and  smoothing  it  for  hai-vesting.  About  the  middle  of  June  the 
crop  is  fit  for  feeding,  and  wiU  last  up  to  the  1st  of  July,  when  what 
is  left  is  cut  and  dried  in  the  same  manner  as  hay,  and  jDut  in  the 


94  How  Tni;  Faioi  Pay^. 

havn,  or  in  stacks  iu  the  tield,  puttiii;;'  about  eight  or  ten  two-horse 
loads  iu  a  stack,  where  it  remains  lor  winter  use.  In  the  winter  the 
fodder  is  carted  to  the  bai-n,  ran  through  the  cutter  and  mixed  with 
such  other  feeds  as  will  be  hereafter  stated. 

Q.  How  does  the  weight  of  this  crop  compare  with  clover  cut  and 
dried  at  the  same  date  ? 

A.  I  had  a  field  of  ten  acres  of  peas  and  oats  which  produced  forty 
tons  of  well  cured  fodder.  Although  the  conditions  were  not  so  favor- 
able, the  weight  of  the  peas  and  oats  exceeded  that  of  the  average 
yield  of  clover  fifty  per  cent.  The  land  which  I  sowed  with  peas 
and  oats  was  not  so  fertile  as  the  clover  land,  because  the  former 
crop  does  not  requii'e  so  much  manui'e,  as  the  land  is  manured 
hea^•ily,  after  the  crop  is  harvested,  for  a  succeeding  crop  of  fodder 
corn  or  turnips. 

Q.  Then  w'ould  you  consider  the  hay  of  jieas  and  oats  is  worth  as 
much,  ton  for  ton,  as  clover  hay? 

A.  I  consider  it  worth  one-half  more  than  clover,  for,  while 
clover  haj'  is  worth  fi-om  $8  to  $10  per  ton,  I  would  pay  $15  per  ton 
for  hay  of  peas  and  oats.  I  prefer  it  for  either  cattle  or  horses.  There 
is  no  other  feed  that  you  can  give  to  a  farm  horse  that  will  cany  him 
through  the  spring  better  than  peas  and  oats,  as  this  fodder  is  ex- 
ceedingly nutritious. 

Q,  Why,  then,  is  a  crop  that  is  only  thi-ee  months  in  the  ground 
and  that  can  be  grown  on  poor  soil,  and  which  you  say  is  superior 
to  clover  hay,  not  more  generally  cultivated  ? 

A.  It  is  a  crop  that  was  almost  unknown  iu  this  country  untO 
within  a  few  yeai's  past,  although  I  have  been  growing  it  here  for 
twenty  years  ;  but  you  know  how  slowly  the  average  fai-mer  takes 
to  a  new  crop,  and  further,  it  must  be  sown  very  early  or  it 
will  not  succeed  so  well,  and  farmers  as  a  rule  do  not  get  their- 
crops  in  early  enough.  I  am  glad,  however,  to  saj-  that  the  use 
of  peas  to  mix  with  oats  for  this  purpose  is  increasing  very 
rapidly,  and  the  crop  will  soon  be  popular.  Last  season  the 
demand  was  far  greater  than  could  be  supplied.  Our  ehmate  has 
peculiar  advantages  for  such  a  crof).  It  takes  the  place  conijileteh- 
of  the  tare  or  vetch  so  much  used  in  Eiu-ojie,  our  dry,  Inight 
weather  in  July  being  peculiarly  suited  to  cure  and  make  of  it  a 
sweet  hay  crop.  The  varieties  used  are  the  Canada  araj  pea,  and  the 
black  eye  marrowfat  for  the  second  crop. 

Q.  "What  is  the  best  stage  for  cutting  peas  and  oats  for  hay  ? 

A.  I  cut  for  hay  while  the  grain  of  the  oats  is  in  the  milky  state  ;  at 
that  time  the  peas  are  just  passing  the  blossom  and  iu  their  best 
stage  for  cutting. 


Crops  for  Soiling  and  Fodder — Cow  Pea  and  Millet.  95 

Q.   Have  you  ever  attempted  the  culture  of  tlie  Southern  Cow  Pea? 

A.  I  planted  twelve  bushels  one  season  that  were  sent  me  by  a 
friend  in  Charleston.  From  the  way  it  had  been  spoken  of  in  the 
agricultural  journals  I  expected  to  have  a  good  soihng  crop  from  it, 
but  when  I  came  to  feed  it  to  my  cows  they  snuffed  and  tossed  it 
around,  but  would  not  eat  it.  When  I  found  they  would  not  touch 
it  I  plowed  it  under  as  a  manure  crop.  I  well  knew  the  estimation 
in  which  it  is  held  at  the  South  and  for  that  reason  was  all  the  more 
disappointed.  Whatever  the  cause,  it  is  certain  that  my  cattle 
refused  to  eat  it,  and  it  may  be  that  the  Southern  cattle  not  having 
so  much  choice  of  food  have  become  accustomed  to  it,  but,  as  far  as 
my  observation  has  gone,  the  appeai-ance  of  the  cattle  in  the  South 
is  not  such  as  to  show  that  this  is  a  good  fodder  plant,  as  they  bear 
no  comparison  with  oiu-  Northern  stock  ;  and  I  woidd  advise  our 
Southern  friends  to  compare,  under  fair  tests,  our  forage  of  peas  and 
oats  with  this  Southern  Cow  Pea.  But,  as  has  been  before  stated, 
lucern  is  the  best  of  all  fodder  crops  for  the  southern  part  of  the 
country. 

JULLET. 

Q.   Have  you  made  any  trials  of  any  of  the  millets  ? 

A.  I  have  used  the  German  millet  and  do  not  like  it  very  well.  It 
is  coai'se  and  the  seed  is  too  hard  to  digest.  I  have  grown  a  groat  deal 
of  Hungarian  miUet,  or  "  grass,"  as  it  is  commonlj-  called.  It  makes 
very  good  winter  food  when  cut  before  the  seed  rij^ens.  If  cut  when 
in  bloom  before  it  goes  to  seed  Hungarian  grass  is  an  excellent  crop. 
It,  too,  may  be  called  a  "  stolen  "  croj),  as  it  can  be  sown  and  cut  in 
condition  for  hay  six  weeks  after  sowing,  and  may  be  sown  after  the 
hay  or  oat  crop  has  been  taken  off,  which  is  far  better  than  to  let  the 
land  go  to  weeds.  No  good  fai-mer  should  suffer  his  land  to  gi-ow 
weeds.  For  one  reason,  because  of  leaving  it  too  long  and  stocking 
the  soil  with  the  seeds  ;  for  another,  that  he  may  grow  a  useful  crop 
hke  this,  or  some  other,  just  as  well  as  a  crop  of  weeds.  I  have 
known  as  much  as  four  tons  of  dry  hay  to  be  taken  off  per  acre  from 
Hungarian  gi-ass,  in  sis  weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing.  No  other 
crop  will  stand  the  heat  so  well  as  this.  It  is  just  here  that  I  may 
raise  my  voice  in  warning  against  the  common  practice  with  fanners 
of  going  over  too  much  land.  One  hundred  acres  judiciously  tilled 
win  bring  a  greater  jjrofit  than  200  acres  tilled  in  a  sliijshod  way  ; 
for  with  this  crop  we  are  just  speaking  of,  after  a  crop  of  oats,  or 
wheat,  or  rye,  has  been  taken  fi-om  the  ground,  there  is  yet  plenty 
of  time.     And  it  is  just  the  time  to  plow  and  sow  with  it,  because  of 


9f)  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

all  plants  it  luxiu'iates  the  best  in  Lot  weather,  ami  may  be  grown  on 
fairlv  good  to  the  richest  soil,  but,  of  coui'se,  ^^■ith  corresponding 
results.  Common  miUet  difl'ers  from  Hungarian  grass  only  in  the 
form  of  the  head  or  panicle,  which  is  looser  and  more  open  than  the 
spike  of  Hungarian  grass.  The  awns  or  beards  of  millet  are  softer 
than  those  of  Hungaiiuu  gi'ass,  and  on  this  account  the  miUet  is 
better  liked  by  some  farmers,  who  beUeve  that  Hungarian  grass  is 
injurious  to  horses,  and  with,  j^erhaps,  some  reason,  on  account  of  its 
short,  stiff,  sharj)  awns.  The  amount  of  seed  of  either  kind  sown  is 
a  jjeck  to  half  a  bushel  per  acre.  Another  important  fodder  plant,  to 
a  limited  extent,  is  Pearl  Millet,  which  I  tried  several  years  ago; 
but  as  3'ou,  Mr.  Henderson,  have  got  some  notoriety  by  youi-  experi- 
ments with  it  at  that  time,  and  some  blame  too,  I  think  if  you  have 
no  scruples  in  the  matter  it  would  be  well  to  give  such  information 
in  regard  to  it  as  your  experience  enables  you. 

(Mr.  H.)  Pearl  Millet  isnow  wellknown  all  over  the  country,  especially 
in  the  Southern  States,  where  it  goes  by  the  common  name  of  Cat  Tail 
MiUet.  In  1878  I  determined  to  give  it  a  thorough  trial,  and  i)re- 
pared  a  piece  of  good  gi'ound,  as  if  for  a  root  crop,  by  manuring  at 
the  rate  of  twelve  or  fifteen  tons  to  the  acre,  jjlowing  deeply  and 
harrowing.  The  seed  was  sown  in  diills  twenty  inches  aiiaii, 
at  the  rate  of  foui'  to  five  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  seed  was 
sown  about  the  middle  of  May.  When  the  plants  were  up  a 
cultivator  was  iim  tlirough  the  rows,  and  the  growth  became  so 
rapid  that  no  further  cultiu'e  was  necessaiy.  The  fii'st  cutting 
was  made  forty-five  days  after  sowing;  it  was  seven  feet  high 
and  covered  the  whole  ground.  The  crop,  cut  three  inches 
above  the  ground,  weighed,  as  cut,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  tons  per 
acre ;  dried,  six  and  one-half  tons  per  acre  of  hay.  The  second 
gi'owth,  cut  forty- five  days  from  the  time  of  the  fii'st  cutting,  was  nine 
feet  high,  and  weighed  at  the  rate  of  fiftj'-five  tons  to  the  acre  fresh, 
equal  to  eight  tons  di-ied.  The  last  growth  started  rapidly,  but  the 
cool  weather  retarded  it,  so  that  the  last  cutting  only  weighed  ten 
tons  green,  and  one  and  one-half  tons  dried.  The  total  yield  was  as 
follows:  First  cutting,  in  forty-five  days,  gave  thirty  tons  gi'eeu,  or 
six  and  one-half  tons  dry;  second  cutting,  in  forty-five  days,  gave 
fifty-five  tons  gi-een,  or  eight  tons  dry;  third  cutting,  in  forty-five 
days,  gave  ten  tons  green,  or  one  and  one-half  tons  dry ;  in  all  being 
ninety-five  tons  green  fodder  in  I'M)  days,  equal  to  sixteen  tons  of 
hay.  These  results,  published  at  the  time,  gave  rise  to  some  severe 
criticism  by  persons  who  had  failed  to  do  as  well  with  the  crop  as  I 
had  done.  But  it  should  l)e  remembered  that  the  conditions  under 
which  an  experiment  is  made  are  essentially  necessai-y  to  a  successful 


Crops  fob  Soiling  A2iv  Foddek — Corn.  07 

repetition  of  it,  and  if  these  differ  in  any  respect,  and  esjjecially  if 
they  are  inferior,  failure  is  apt  to  result. 

A,'!  1  have  had  many  inquiries  as  to  the  best  manner  of  drying 
Pearl  Millet  for  "  hay,"  I  would  say  that  oui'  crop  was  sown  in  a 
soUd  block,  so  that  when  cut  it  had  to  be  removed  from  the  land 
where  it  grew,  and  tied  in  sheaves,  and  hung  up  on  an  extemijorized 
rail  fence  until  cured.  This  jjlan  of  coui'se  would  not  answer  on  a 
large  scale,  as  the  crop  is  so  enormous  that  such  an  expedient  for 
drying  would  be  too  expensive  both  for  labor  and  rails,  and  as  it  is 
too  heavy  and  succulent  to  be  diied  hke  Timothy  and  Clover,  on  the 
ground  where  it  is  cut,  it  must  be  removed,  for  to  attempt  to  dry  it 
where  it  grows  would  destroy  the  second  crop.  Cii'cumstances,  of 
course,  must  in  a  great  measure  be  a  guide,  but  we  would  suggest, 
that  when  gxown  for  the  purjiose  of  being  dried,  that  it  be  sown  in 
beds,  say  twelve  feet  wide,  with  alleys  sis  feet  between,  where  it  may 
be  dried  ;  this,  of  course,  would  be  a  loss  of  one-thu-d  of  the  land  for 
the  first  crop,  but  it  would  be  little  or  no  loss  of  crop  in  the  second, 
for  the  mOlet  would  spread  so  as  to  fiU  up  all  the  six  feet  of  alley. 


FODDER  CORN. 

Q.  I  believe,  Mr.  Crozier,  you  hold  that  one  of  the  most  valuable 
crojjs  for  soUing  purposes  is  fodder  corn.  Please  state  what  is  yoiu" 
mode  of  ctdtui'e  and  experience  with  this  crop  ? 

A.  In  my  hands  fodder  corn  has  been  such  a  successful  crop  that  it 
seems  useless  for  me  to  attempt  to  grow  anything  else  of  the  same 
natui'e.  I  consider  it  to  be  above  all  others  the  most  valuable  for 
soUing  purposes,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  time  we  can 
feed  it  in  its  gi-een  state,  from  Julj'  until  fi'ost,  and  at  the  very  time 
when  in  most  cases  grass  and  all  other  green  feed  is  withered  and  dried. 
As  this,  in  my  estimation,  is  a  crop  of  such  vast  imjoortance,  I  wiU  give 
in  detail  my  method  of  cultiu'e,  which  is  as  follows :  I  have  found  that 
to  obtain  the  best  results  with  this  crop  the  land  should  be  plowed  in  the 
fall  and  left  to  the  action  of  the  fi-ost  aU  winter.  About  the  middle  of 
April  I  haiTow  and  strike  out  fiuTows  three  and  oue-haLf  feet  aj)art. 
This  is  done  with  a  home-made  implement  called  a  ' '  fuiTow  marker," 
which  has  two  triangular  teeth,  and  makes  two  fiUTOws  at  once,  six 
inches  deeji  and  ten  wide,  thus  making  a  gi-eater  width  of  row  thfin 
could  possibly  be  done  with  the  plow.  (See  illustration.)  Manure 
is  di-opped  in  the  furrows  at  the  rate  of  twenty  wagon  loads  of  good 
compost  to  the  acre.  If  manui'e  cannot  be  had,  the  best  artificial 
fertihzer  that  can  be  x^rocui-ed  should  be  used  instead,  at  the  rate  of 


98  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

500  pounds  per  acre,  sowed  in  the  furrows.  Two  bushels  of  White 
Southern  Corn  is  sown  per  acre,  or  a  good  handful  to  every  step.  I 
have  found  this  yariety  to  be  the  best  for  soihng.  The  work  of 
spreading  the  manure  in  the  fuiTOWs,  sowing  the  corn  and  coveiing, 
should  all  follow  each  other  in  quick  succession,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
land  or  manure  from  drying  up  before  the  crop  is  in.  The  brush 
haiTow  with  the  brash  taken  out  (shown  on  a  previous  page)  is  the 
best  implement  to  be  used  to  cover  the  gi-aiu  Ughtly.  I  formerly  cov- 
ered with  the  plow,  throwing  a  fui-row  up  to  each  side  of  the  diill; 
Init  I  find  that  the  lighter  it  is  covered,  the  fi-eer  it  is  from 
rot  or  injury.  After  coveiing,  it  is  rolled  in  the  usual  manner. 
In  this  section  the  first  crop  is  sown  about  the  last  of  May 
and     others    every   two    weeks    in    succession    until  the    middle 


FUiiKUW  S 


of  June,  when  I  put  in  a  larger  ciuantity  for  drying  for  winter 
feed.  It  is  cultivated  once  a  week  untU  it  gets  too  large  for  a 
horse  to  pass  through  it,  which  will  be  with  that  sown  in  May  about 
the  fii-st  week  iu  July,  and  for  that  sown  in  June,  about  the  1st  of 
August.  No  more  work  is  required  uutU  the  corn  is  ready  to  cut 
and  cure,  which  is  from  the  Ist  to  the  1.5th  of  September,  the  corn 
at  this  time  being  tasseled  out,  and  in  the  best  stage  for  curing.  I 
formerly  cut  with  a  mowing  machine,  taking  two  rows  at  a  time ; 
but  of  late  years  I  have  found  that  it  is  more  expensive  and  entails 
more  labor  to  gather  it  and  shock  it,  after  the  machine,  than  when  cut 
with  corn  hook  and  carried  direct  to  the  shock.  Each  man  takes 
two  rows  at  a  time,  cames  his  armful  to  the  shock,  which  should  be 
close  by,  jilants  it  as  straight  on  the  end  as  possible,  and  so  on  until 
there  is  about  500  pounds  in  the  shock.  We  then  take  a  strong 
hemp  rope,  with  an  eye  in  one  end,  through  which  the  other  end  is 
passed,  and  draw  it  tightly  around  the  middle  of  the  shock,  and  then 


Fodder  Corn — How  Ciieed  and  Used.  99 

tie  or  bind  the  top  of  tlie  shock  with  a  rye  straw  band,  in  such  a  way 
as  best  to  shed  the  rains. 

A  letter  to  the  Milwaukee  Sentinel  in  June  of  1883  says:  "  Hon. 
Geo.  F.  Lord,  of  Elgin,  keeps  100  cows  on  300  acres  of  land,  and  has 
not  raised  a  pound  of  hay  for  years.  The  corn  is  sowed  in  drills 
three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  and  about  the  time  it  blossoms  it  is  cut 
with  a  self-raking  reaper,  cutting  one  row  at  a  time,  the  machine 
throwing  it  off  in  gavels.  When  sufficiently  wilted  it  is  bound  and 
set  in  large  stacks  and  allowed  to  cure  standing  on  the  ground  until 
winter  sets  in,  when  it  is  hauled  to  the  barn.  He  secures  a  yield  of 
about  seven  tons  of  cured  fodder  to  the  acre,  worth  as  much  as  the 
best  hay.     He  is  one  of  the  most  successful  dauymen  in  Illinois. " 

In  the  latitude  of  New  York,  it  will  keep  shocked  ui  the  open  field 
through  the  winter  until  spring.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  leave  it  in  the 
field  after  it  is  dried  and  cured,  which  is  usually  three  or  four  weeks 
after  it  is  shocked,  it  should  be  bound  uj)  in  sheaves  and  carted  to  the 
barn,  or  stacked  or  put  in  sheds  convenient  to  where  it  is  to  be  used. 
My  plan  in  feeding  is  to  run  it  through  the  cutter  worked  by  horse 
power,  and  mix  it  with  cut  hay,  or  peas  and  oats,  and  pulped  or 
crushed  roots,  adding  a  little  salt.  We  cut  enough  at  one  time  to 
last  for  a  week,  unless  the  weather  be  warm,  as  the  crushed  roots 
would  then  naturally  ferment.  The  roots  when  jjulped  or  cmshed 
are  in  the  same  condition  as  apples  when  they  come  fi-om  the  cider 
press.  In  this  state,  they  satui'ate  the  cut  fodder  better  than  when 
chopped  up  by  the  ordinary  root  cutter.  A  machine  known  as  a 
"  Root  Pulper  "  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  that  purpose  in  Britain, 
but  I  think  few  of  them  are  in  use  here.  For  cutting  roots  for  a  few 
cows,  a  useful  cutter  is  made  as  follows:  A  heavy  steel  blade  is  made 
in  the  shape  of  a  x  and  fitted  to  a  strong  handle ;  the  roots  are  put 
in  a  feed  box  and  chopped  up  with  it  very  quickly.  About  twenty- 
five  years  ago  when  riuming  a  milk  farm  I  steamed  aU  the  feed  for 
the  cattle,  but  it  was  mixed  in  the  same  way.  I  found  some  ad- 
vantage in  the  saving  of  feed,  and,  iu  fact,  continued  steaming  up  to 
1876.  While  visiting  Europe  and  consulting  with  stock  raisers  there, 
I  found  they  had  abandoned  steaming  feed  for  then-  breeding  animals, 
and  on  my  return  home  I  made  the  change  from  steaming  to  this 
mode  of  feeding,  and  have  fovmd  it  to  be  most  beneficial,  not  only  in 
the  saving  of  labor,  but  the  stock  do  much  better.  The  calves  are 
bom  stronger  and  healthier.  The  cows  produce  more  butter,  but  not 
so  much  milk,  as  when  fed  on  steamed  feed. 

Q.  What  is  your  estimate  of  the  value  for  feeding  puiiioses  of 
Timothy  hay  or  Orchard   Grass  hay  as  compared  with  fodder  com? 

A.  I   consider    fodder   corn   for    feeding    isurposes   to    be    more 


100  How  THE  Fabm  Pays. 

viduable  than  Timothy,  as  the  grass  is  too  harsh  for  the  animals,  and 
I  think  that  well  cured  fodder  corn,  with  the  mixtures  heretofore 
mentioned,  is  equally  as  good,  pound  for  pound,  as  Orchai'd  Grass,  or 
"peas  and  oats,"  or  any  other  of  the  best  hays. 

Q.  Why,  then,  if  it  is  equally  valuable,  do  you  grow  the  hay  grasses 
at  all,  as  their  weight  is  less  than  hiilf,  per  acre,  that  of  the  fodder  com? 

A.  It  would  not  be  practicable  to  grow  fodder  com  exclusively 
upon  the  majority  of  farms.  Growing  the  grasses  is  a  necessity  for 
the  rotation  of  crops,  and  when  once  seeded  down  they  will  last  for 
several  years  without  any  further  cost,  except  that  of  a  top  di-essing, 
which  cost,  of  course,  enters  into  the  question,  every  time,  when  com 
or  other  crops  are  gi'owu,  specially  for  fodder. 


FEEDIXG  SOILING  CROPS. 

Q.  In  feeding  the  green  crops,  Mr.  Crozier,  that  you  use  for  soiling, 
in  what  condition  are  they  fed  to  the  stock — are  they  fed  fresh  and 
green,  as  they  are  cut '? 

A.  They  ai-e  cut  in  the  morning  for  feeding  in  the  afternoon  or 
next  morning.  I  think  it  is  better  to  let  them  wilt — they  are  not  so 
ai)t  to  act  unfavorably  upon  the  bowels;  and  I  find  that  cattle  will  eat 
their  food  with  better  appetite,  and  give  more  milk,  when  it  is  wilted, 
than  when  it  is  given  fi-esh  cut.  "When  the  fodder  is  cut,  it  is  simply 
left  on  the  gi'ound  until  it  is  brought  in  for  feeding. 

Q.  Would  there  be  any  danger  of  injm-y  if  too  much  of  it  were  fed 
green  to  the  stock  ? 

A.  It  is  very  apt  to  bloat,  or  blow,  as  it  is  called,  paiiiculai-ly  if 
cut  when  wet.  When  too  large  a  quantity  is  taken  into  the  stomach, 
gases  are  evolved  wliieh  cause  death,  if  the  animal  is  not  reheved. 
It  is  always  better,  as  a  means  of  precaution,  to  mix  -with  the  green 
feed  ten  per  cent,  of  cut  hay  or  straw. 

Q.  Do  you  continue  to  use  this  mixture  of  cut  hay  or  straw  with 
such  croj)s  as  you  use  for  soiling  thi'oughout  the  entire  season  ? 

A.  No;  only  until  we  get  the  bowels  regulated,  being  careful  not 
to  :nake  the  change  too  quick  fi'om  the  mixture  to  tlie  gi-ecn  feed. 

Q.  Then,  when  you  are  regularh'  under  way  with  the  soiling  fodder, 
do  you  use  that  exclusivelj'  ? 

A.  Yes;  but  we  give  in  addition  bran,  and  sometimes  meal, 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  cattle.  If  they  are  in  fuU  milk  we 
give  both  bran  and  meal,  fi-om  seven  to  ten  pounds  per  day  to  each, 
according  to  size  of  the  cow.  This  is  always  mixed  with  some  of 
the  fodder  cut.     If  they  are  coming  into  calving,  we  do  not  give  any- 


Feeding  Green  Ckops — Bloating. 


101 


thing  but  the  soiling;  but  we  are  very  cautious  to  commence  light, 
and  increase  the  feed,  gradually  the  first  week,  although  I  feed  so 
much  mangels  and  other  roots,  that  the  sudden  change  is  not  so 
much  as  it  would  be  if  hay  or  dry  food  alone  were  fed. 

Q.  When  the  cattle  have  become  completely  imu'ed  to  the  soiling 
do  you  give  them  as  much  feed  as  they  can  consume  ? 

A.  Yes;  I  give  them  aU  they  ^vill  eat  clean  without  leaving  any. 

Q.  ^Vhat  is  the  indication  when  an  animal  has  become  "  blo\vn  " 
by  having  had  too  much  wet  green  feed? 

A.  The  animal  becomes  restless,  lies  down  and  gets  uj)  and  down 
again;  breathes  short  and  quick,  indicating  distress;  her  side  is 
extended  as  high  as  her  back,  and  sometimes  higher  than  her  back- 
bone. 

Q.  In  such  cases  is  death  inevitable  it  no  remedy  is  used '? 

A.  It  is;  but  we  fortunately  have  efl'ective  remedies.  The  quickest 
and  best  is,  perhajis,  the  trochar  and  cauula,  which  is  driven  into  her 


TKOCHAR  AND  CA2fIILA. 


i  it  is  -withdrawn. 


left  side,  near  the  short  rib.  This  instrument  is  made  with  a  scab- 
bard or  cover,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut;  this  is  left  in  the 
wound  untU  all  the  gas  has  escaped.  It  is  then  taken  out,  and  the 
skin  closes  over  the  wound  in  the  stomach,  which,  with  the  wound  in 
the  skin,  soon  heals,  without  any  ill  effect. 

Q.  When  taken  in  time  is  the  trochar  certain  to  give  rehef  ? 

A.  Yes;  immediately. 

Q.  Is  there  not  danger  of  injuiing  the  animal  by  use  of  it  in  inex- 
perienced hands  ? 

A.  There  is  some  danger,  and  I  would  not  advise  an  inexperienced 
person  to  use  it.  A  very  simple  and  safe  remedy  is  to  saturate  a 
horse  blanket  thorouglily  with  cold  water,  and  throw  it  across  the 
loins  and  back,  and  pour  cold  water  over  it.  I  have  known  this  to 
give  immediate  relief. 

Q.  But  in  the  hands  of  an  experienced  cattle  man  what  remedj'  do 
you  consider  the  best? 


102  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

A.  I  always  use  the  trochar  myself,  which  I  think  affords  the 
speediest  and  surest  relief.  Another  remedy  is  to  give  brewer's 
yeast  to  the  animal.  It  is  a  sure  remedy  if  it  can  be  had  fi'esh.  A 
quart  of  the  yeast,  given  at  once,  acts  as  a  jDui-gative  very  quickly, 
and  so  reheves  the  animal.  Another  easy  remedy  is  to  put  a  short 
round  stick,  about  two  inches  thick,  crossways  between  the  animal's 
jaws,  in  the  manner  of  a  bit,  and  fasten  the  ends  to  the  homs,  draw- 
ing it  close  up.  This  causes  the  cow  to  make  efforts  to  reUeve  herself 
of  it,  holding  up  her  head,  and  gives  the  gas  a  chance  to  escape. 
The  trochar  and  canula,  however,  affords  the  most  certain  rehef. 
The  puncture  is  made  at  a  spot  half  way  between  the  last  rib  and  the 
hip  bone,  on  the  left  side,  and  a  little  below  the  line  of  the  hip  bone. 
The  dii'ection  of  the  instrument  should  be  downwards,  so  as  to  avoid 
injiu-ing  the  kidney.  The  swelling  is  always  the  gi-eatest  just  at 
this  spot. 

Q.  To  get  at  a  right  understanding  of  this  important  matter  of 
soiling,  please  state  at  what  season  of  the  year  you  begin  and  your 
method  of  feeding  it? 

A.  I  begin  to  feed  about  the  middle  of  May  with  rye,  which,  as  lias 
been  stated  before,  is  the  first  green  feed.  I  feed  about  seven  o'clock 
directly  after  milking  in  the  morning,  feeding  a  little  at  a  time,  until 
they  seem  satisfied.  "What  is  left  is  taken  fi-om  before  them  and  the 
mangers  cleaned  ready  for  the  next  feeding.  They  are  fed  again  at 
noon  and  at  four-  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  six  o'clock  they  ai-e 
milked,  turned  into  the  paddock  for  a  night's  rest,  where  they  enjoy 
the  fresh,  cool  air,  and  are  fi'ee  fi'om  the  annoyance  of  flies.  This  pro- 
cess of  soUing  the  cattle  is  continued  until  the  middle  of  November, 
if  frost  and  cold  weather  keep  off  so  long;  and  very  often  later,  as  I 
often  plant  a  few  acres  of  late  cabbage,  and  sometimes  a  portion  of 
them  do  not  head  up,  and  ai'e  in  that  condition  used  for  soiling,  the 
same  as  any  other  gi-een  fodder.  Field  pumi^kius  are  used  late  in 
the  fall  in  the  same  manner,  broken  up  with  an  axe,  and  fed  to  the 
cows  once  a  day.  The  cabbage  and  the  pumpkins  then  -will  carry  us 
sometimes  to  the  end  of  November,  according  to  the  season,  but  we 
generally  make  it  a  point  to  begin  our  regular  winter  feed  about  the 
middle  of  November,  which  is  done  in  the  following  manner:  Dried 
fodder  corn,  or  hay  made  from  oats  and  jjeas,  orchard  or  other  grasses 
is  cut,  and  mixed  with  crushed  roots,  which  have  been  run  through 
the  machine  known  as  the ' '  pulper  "  until  they  are  of  the  consistence  of 
apples  ground  for  cider,  enough  being  mixed  to  last  a  week  at  a  time. 
The  whole  is  mixed  with  a  little  salt  (bone  meal  at  times),  bran  and 
ground  oats  and  corn,  and  lately  I  have  used  with  gi'eat  advantage  a  little 
cotton  seed  meal.  There  is  nothing  arbitrary  in  the  quantities  used  of 


Economy  of  Soilisg.  103 

these,  which  we  may  call  condiments,  but  the  main  articles,  the  cut  hay 
and  the  crushed  roots,  are  used  about  in  the  joroportion  of  a  cart  load,  or 
thirty  bushels,  of  the  roots,  to  a  ton  of  the  provender.  It  is  then 
thrown  in  a  heap  on  the  barn  floor  and  allowed  to  ferment  enough  to 
make  it  sUghtly  warm,  as  I  find  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  give  warm 
feed  to  milch  cows  in  the  winter.  The  quantitj'  given  to  each  cow  of 
average  size  is  a  common  bushel  basket  full  twice  a  day,  unless  she  is 
in  full  milk,  when  she  is  allowed  a  httle  more  as  may  be  thought 
necessary.  At  midday  I  give  them  hay  after  they  have  been  watered 
in  their  stalls,  the  water  being  shghtly  warmed,  as  I  find  that  if  permitted 
to  drink  cold  water,  the  change  would  make  a  loss  of  several  pounds  of 
milk  per  day  with  each  cow.  Practically  this  may  be  found  difficult 
or  inconvenient  upon  farms,  which  are  not  well  provided  with  the 
faculties  for  warming  the  water.  In  such  cases,  however,  it  may  be 
quite  easy  to  take  care  that  the  water  troughs  are  kept  free  from  ice 
or  snow  in  the  winter  season,  and  to  give  the  cows  only  water  that  is 
fresh  drawn  from  a  well  or  a  cistern.  The  troughs  should  be  emptied 
as  soon  as  the  cattle  are  watered,  by  means  of  a  hole  in  the  bottom, 
stopped  vrith  a  plug,  and  covers  provided  for  them  to  prevent  them 
becoming  fUled  with  snow.  Well  water  is  rarely  colder  than  fifty  or 
forty-five  degrees,  and  this  temperature  is  not  injurious. 

(Mr.  H. )  I  have  heard  objections  made  to  this  practice  of  soUing 
by  some  persons,  on  account  of  the  extra  labor  involved  in  it.  I  can- 
not see  it  in  that  hght.  I  have  been  told,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
this  extra  labor  is  by  no  means  so  great  as  some  think  it  to  be, 
especially  when  a  weU  arranged  system  is  practiced.  For  instance, 
take  a  farm  where  thirty  cows  are  kept.  Each  feed  amounts  to  forty 
pounds  for  each  cow — that  is,  1,200  pounds  in  all — which  is  a 
moderate  load  for  one  horse.  A  smart  boy  or  a  man  takes  a  team  and 
wagon  to  the  field.  A  mowing  machine  is  kept  there.  This  I  would 
say  should  be  covered  with  a  waterproof  sheet  when  not  in  use.  The 
horses  are  put  to  the  mower  and  the  fodder  is  cut.  One,  two  or  even 
three  feeds  ahead  may  be  cut,  to  provide  against  rainy  days.  The 
load  cut  on  the  previous  evening  is  loaded,  and  hauled  to  the  barn. 
This  is  the  work  of  an  hour  or  perhaps  more,  but  ceiiainly  not  two. 
The  wagon  is  drawn  into  the  feeding  passage  and  the  load  thrown  off, 
or  it  may  be  put  du-ectly  into  the  feeding  racks,  but  it  is  preferable 
to  have  one  or  two  feeds  ahead  in  the  bai'u.  In  this  way  half  the 
time  of  a  man  might  be  taken  up  daily  in  getting  the  feed  for  thirty 
cows.  The  rest  of  his  time  may  be  profitably  taken  up  in  caring  for 
them  in  other  ways,  and  in  caring  for  the  manm-e.  This  will  cost 
about  three  cents  a  day  for  each  cow.  The  saving  in  manure  wiU 
pay  that,  while   the  saving  in  the   feed  will  pay  even  more.     For 


10-1  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

smaller  heida  the  cost  in  proportion  is  even  less,  as  one  boi-se  and  a 
boy  ■will  do  all  tlie  work. 

(Mr.  C.)  This  view  is  undoubtedly  con'ect  and  the  description  of 
the  woi-k  is  a  fau-  one.  In  farming,  all  the  work  that  can  be  done 
usefully  adds  to  the  profit,  and  no  lai'mer  should  be  afraid  of  soiling 
because  it  involves  some  little  additional  work,  when  this  work 
pays  so  well  for  itself. 

Q.  How  long-  do  you  continue  to  turn  the  cattle  out  at  night  ? 

A.  On  account  of  the  danger  of  sudden  cold  storms  coming  up  at 
night  and  of  white  frost  on  the  grass,  we  do  not  usually  leave  them 
out  later  than  the  middle  of  September,  to  remain  all  night.  M'ti 
then  change  to  feed  morning  and  evening,  and  tui'u  them  out  at  mid- 
day, keeping  them  in  the  stables  at  night,  as  at  that  season  of  the 
year  we  always  expect  these  sudden  changes,  in  this  northern  latitude. 

Q.  Do  you  give  them  exercise  in  the  severe  weather  ? 

A.  I  have  had  my  animals  in  the  stables  thi-ee  months  at  a  time 
without  ever  letting  them  out  of  the  stalls,  for  the  reason  that  cows 
with  calf  are  apt  to  be  abused  by  the  other  cows,  and  if  they  are 
fresh  in  milk,  the  less  exercise  they  have,  the  more  milk  they  will  pro- 
duce, as  they  ai-e  more  contented  when  in  their  stalls  and  at  rest.  It 
is  a  common  practice  with  many  farmers  to  let  their  cattle  run  about 
the  stack  yards  all  winter  through.  In  the  spring  they  are  in  a  sad 
condition  from  jDoverty,  and  httle  can  be  expected  from  them  the  fol- 
lowing summer.  Many  persons  get  the  very  mistaken  idea  that  cows 
should  have  a  chance  to  get  out  to  lick  themselves.  This  I  think  is  a 
great  inj\iry  to  the  animals  and  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  sources  of 
bad  health,  because  thoy  lick  the  hair  ofl'  themselves,  and  of  course 
swallow  some  of  it.  When  it  gets  into  the  stomach  it  remains  there, 
and  impedes  the  fi'ee  action  of  the  bowels,  sometimes  gathering  into 
hard  balls  and  producing  death.  Instead  of  pennittiug  the  cow  to 
lick  herself  or  to  be  licked  by  her  companions,  I  use  a  curry-comb 
and  stifi"  brush,  which  are  appUed  twice  each  day  so  vigorously  as  to 
remove  all  loose  hair,  and  keep  the  pores  of  the  skin  open.  If  this  is 
done  a  cow  %vill  never  attempt  to  lick  herself.  This  enables  the  con- 
stant perspu-ation  from  the  skin  to  pass  off  in  a  proper  manner,  which 
greatly  helps  the  health  of  the  cow  and  indeed  has  a  considerable 
effect  upon  the  purity  of  the  milk. 

Q.  Do  not  cows  requii-e  a  certain  quantity  of  salt  with  then-  food? 

A.  I  give  a  small  handful  of  salt  and  tine  bone  meal  mixed  half  and 
half,  every  morning,  after  their  cribs  axe  cleaned  out.  For  the  first 
few  times  a  new  comer  does  not  like  the  bone  meal;  but  as  soon  as 
she  gets  a  taste  of  it  she  looks  for  it  as  regularly  every  morning  as 
her  feed.     In  the  spring  of  the  yeai-  the  old  practice  was  to  bleed; 


Abortion  in  Cows.  105 

tut  instead  of  bleeding,  wliich  at  times  is  a  useless  and  injurious 
practice,  especiall^y  ■when  done  ■nithout  jii'oper  knowledge,  I  give  salts 
aoid  sulpliiu-  to  cleanse  and  jjurifj'  the  blood.  The  proper  quantity 
for  a  full-grown  animal  should  be  one-half  pound  of  salts  and  two 
ounces  of  sulphiu-,  which  is  made  into  three  doses  and  a  dose  given 
every  two  days.  In  connection  with  this  matter  of  allowing  cows  to 
ran  in  the  barn-yards,  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  one  of  the  great  causes  of 


ABORTION  IN  CATTLE. 

I  am  constantly  receiving  letters  inquiring  as  to  the  cause  of  this 
disease  (for  it  has  unmistakably  shown  itself  to  be  a  disease  under 
certain  conditions),  and  the  permitting  of  cattle  to  run  in  the  barn- 
yards, where  they  have  the  chance  to  push,  butt  and  abuse  each 
other,  is,  I  am  confident,  in  many  cases,  a  frequent  cause  of  the 
trouble;  and  once  this  disease  gets  into  the  herd,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  get  rid  of  it  until  it  has  infected  the  entu'e  stock.  A  farmer 
known  to  me  had  some  twenty  abortions  amongst  his  fine  herd  of 
Jerseys  this  season,  and  only  saved  a  few  calves  from  cows  that  were 
on  a  distant  farm.  He  told  me  that  he  had  wiitteu  to  nearly  every 
prominent  breeder  in  the  country  to  find  out  the  cause,  besides 
stating  his  case  in  several  of  the  agricultural  jom-nals,  but  without  get- 
ting any  satisfactory  reply.  A  letter  received  from  him  a  few  daj's  ago 
stated  that  he  had  found  that  it  was  a  heifer  that  he  had  pui'chasedinthe 
summer  of  1882  that  had  brought  this  serious  disease  into  his  herd,  entail- 
ing aloss  of  thousands  of  doUai"s.  In  my  oijiniou,  the  probable  cause  was 
that  the  rest  of  his  cows  had  set  upon  the  stranger  and  gored  her  and 
hurt  her,  and  in  this  manner  caused  her  to  abort.  His  yard,  I  think, 
is  not  more  than  100  feet  square,  in  which  he  kept  thiiiy  head  of 
cattle.  The  yard  was  littered  with  salt  or  marsh  hay,  probably  three 
feet  deep.  On  this  the  herdsman  would  scatter  the  corn  stalks  or 
hay  for  the  cattle,  and  the  result  was  that  the  master  cow  would 
attack  the  one  nearest  her,  and  so  on  until  all  were  bruised  less  or 
more.  I  beheve  this  very  imj^roper  manner  of  feeding  has  now  been 
changed,  and  the  animals  are  kept  in  box  stalls. 

Q.  Abortion,  I  beUeve,  Mr.  Crozier,  is  generally  sujjposed  to  be 
first  brought  about  by  mechanical  means.  How  do  you  account  for 
its  being  infectious '? 

A.  It  is  probably  caused  by  the  taint  or  smeU  from  the  afterbirth, 
which  always  follows  an  abortion.  The  best  preventive  from  infection 
from  this  odor  is  for  the  herdsman  to  promptly  use  his  l)est  judgment 
in  relieving  the  cow  from  the  placenta,  being  careful  to  bury  all  of  it 


100  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

bevond  possibility  of  odor  arising.  Thorough  disinfection  of  the 
stable,  bv  burning  sulphur  in  it  in  some  careful  and  safe  manner,  is 
also  important,  to  destroy  the  germs  of  the  disease.  The  infected 
cow  should  also  be  removed  from  the  herd  for  several  days.  This 
disinfecting  of  stables  -w-ill  be  found  useful  in  all  cases  of  eijidemic 
diseases.  For  a  stable  of  twenty  cows  one  or  two  jwunds  would  be 
required.  Injections,  thi-ee  times  a  day,  of  a  pint  of  bl(x)d  warm 
water  with  ten  drops  of  carbohc  acid,  should  be  given,  for  the  purix)se 
of  cleansing  the  cow  which  has  aborted.  My  own  experience  in  this 
matter,  I  am  happy  to  say,  has  never  been  such  as  to  give  me  much 
annoyance,  ha\-ing  been  in  the  habit  of  taking  suitable  precautions. 
I  am  so  confident  that  cows  in  a  condition  of  pregnancy  are  abnormally 
sensitive  to  the  foul  odoi-s  from  decomposing  animal  matter,  that  the 
slightest  taint  of  it  in  our  stables  is  at  once  hunted  up  and  removed, 
and  this  is  particidai-ly  the  case  with  all  the  liner  class  of  animals,  such 
as  A^Tshires,  Jerseys  or  Holsteins,  or  any  of  the  high  bred  or  thorough- 
bred animals,  as  they  ai'e  seemingly  more  sensitive  to  such  impres- 
sions than  the  common  stock.  For  this  reason  I  consider  it  to  be  one 
of  the  most  dangerous  things  for  any  stock  breeder  to  permit  the 
placenta,  even  from  sound  cows,  in  ordinary  cases,  or  any  other 
sinular  animal  matter,  to  remain  for  a  moment  longer  than  is  actually 
necessaiy  to  remove  it.  It  should  be  at  once  removed  and  buried 
deep  enough  so  that  no  odor  can  be  emitted  from  it.  Eats  or  mice, 
for  this  reason,  should  never  be  poisoned;  the  simplest  remedy  is 
plenty  of  cats.  If  rats  are  exceedingly  troublesome  the  following  plan 
is  recommended :  get  a  box  ti-ap  and  catch  one ;  then  paint  it  all  over 
with  gas  tar,  excejat  the  head,  which  must  not  be  touched,  putting  as 
much  tar  upon  the  body  as  you  can  get  to  stick,  and  take  it  to  its 
hole  and  let  it  run  in.  Cai-e  must  be  taken  not  to  hurt  the  rat  in  any 
way,  and  not  to  get  the  t-ar  into  the  eyes  or  mouth,  as  it  must  be  able 
to  i-un  through  all  the  holes  in  the  yai-d.  If  half  a  dozen  are  caught 
and  so  treated,  all  the  better  chance  of  their  being  banished. 

(Mr.  H.)  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  disease  is  exceedingly  trouble- 
some and  occasions  serious  loss.  It  is  not  confined,  either,  to  any 
one  breed  of  cattle,  although,  perhaps,  the  Jerseys  are  the  most  sub- 
ject to  it,  for  cases  occur  quite  numerously  in  dauies  where  only 
native  cattle  aie  kept.  I  am  inclined  to  beheve  that,  while  you  are 
correct  as  fai-  as  yoiu-  experience  goes,  yet  you  do  not  go  far  enough 
ia  your  explanation  of  this  dangerous,  and  sometimes  mj-sterious, 
disease.  I  have  heard  of  cases  in  which  the  calves  of  a  whole  herd 
have  been  lost,  when  there  has  been  no  known  mechanical  cause  for 
it.  In  these  cases  the  abortion  was  emphatically  a  disease.  In  con- 
sulting  a   standaid   work   on    veteiinarv   surgerv",   by   the    leading 


Causes  op  Abortion.  107 

authority  in  the  world  (Prof.  Geo.  Fleming,  whose  work  on  Veterinary- 
Obstetrics  is  a  test  book  in  the  colleges),  I  find  this  disease  has  been 
a  source  of  trouble  for  many  years,  especially  in  dailies,  in  many 
places  the  losses  averaging  seventeen,  and  even  twenty-five,  per  cent, 
every  year,  imtil  prevented.  As  any  one  who  reads  the  leading 
agricultural  papers  may  see,  the  losses  (which,  however,  are  not 
pubUshed  in  the  majority  of  cases,  for  obvious  reasons)  among  the 
higher  classes  of  dauy  cattle  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and,  some- 
times, are  almost  ruinous.  It  becomes,  therefore,  of  serious  import- 
ance to  know  something  as  to  how  this  disease  occurs  and  how  to 
prevent  its  occuxrence;  for  as  to  ciu'e,  any  person  can  understand 
that  that  is  out  of  the  question,  because  the  evil  is,  necessarily,  past  cure. 

Prof.  Fleming  says  this  disease  is  either  sporadic  (or  accidental)  or 
epizootic  (or  communicated  and  contagious,  or  due  to  widespread 
causes  operating  over  an  extended  space  at  the  same  time).  The 
causes  are  external  or  internal.  Of  external  causes  he  enumerates, 
atmospheric  influences;  irregular  seasons;  depressing  effects  of  con- 
tinuous bad  weather;  cold  suddenly  apphed  to  the  skin,  as  by  a 
sudden  cold  storm  in  hot  weather,  or  exposiu-e  to  rain  or  sleet  in. 
the  winter,  or  exposure  to  frosty  nights  after  warm  autumn  days. 
The  food  and  water  often  cause  the  trouble.  Frosty  herbage  and 
very  cold  water,  by  suddenly  chilling  the  stomach,  affect  the  foetus, 
and  cause  its  death  and  premature  expulsion.  Indigestible  food,  or 
food  that  is  too  concentrated  and  disturbs  the  digestive  organs  and 
causes  bloating  or  disorders  of  the  blood,  also  endangers  the  foetus. 
Foul  water,  which  is  charged  with  injurious  germs  of  a  fungoid  char- 
acter, is  exceedingly  dangerous.  Some  plants  will  produce  the 
disease;  common  horse  tails  {equisetum),  which  is  common  in  some 
pastures  and  meadows,  and  swamp  sedges,  are  known  to  be  dangerous. 
The  leaves  of  red  cedar  (the  savin  of  the  druggists)  surely  produces 
it,  and  is  used  medicinallj'  as  the  ergot  of  rye  is.  This  fungus,  when 
taken  into  the  stomach  in  small  quantities,  produces  violent  contrac- 
tions of  the  muscular  fibre,  and,  when  eaten  iu  large  quantities,  is  a 
deadly  poison.  Excessive  muscular  action,  and  blows  and  violent 
strains  in  moving  in  cramped  positions,  are  also  causes.  Sudden 
excitement  and  alarm,  as  an  attack  by  dogs,  or  by  other  cows,  and 
anything  which  unduly  excites  the  nerves,  have  been  known  to  pro- 
duce it.  But  contagion,  produced  by  exposure  to  the  virus  from 
aborted  cows,  has  been  considered  as  the  most  frequent  cause  of  this 
disease,  which  often  runs  through  a  whole  herd,  and  even  appears  hi 
others  at  some  distance. 

The  internal  causes  enumerated  lu-e  irregular  feeding,  either  to 
excess,  or   in  the  opposite  direction;    constitutional  predisposition; 


108 


How  THE  Farm  Pats. 


natui-al  orpjanic  weakness;  disorders  of  the  bowels;  diarrhoea,  consti- 
pation, and,  especially,  hiuf,'  disorders,  which  cause  convulsive  coughs, 
or  disturb  the  circ'ulution,  and  produce  conjjestion  or  auamia. 

The  causes  are  thus  very  numerous,  and  are,  no  doubt,  much  more 
prevalent,  in  one  form  or  another,  than  is  generally  supposed.     For 


w 


TIMOTHY       gUACK  OHASS 
iiltUUT.  KBOOT. 


instance,  how  often  are  cows  suddenly  chilled  by  exposure  to  snow  or 
rain  storms;  cold  drafts  in  the  stable  in  severe  weather,  or  other  acci- 
dents, which  too  often  happen  in  dairies  where  it  is  supposed  the 


Precautions  Against  Abortion.  109 

cows  are  treated  with  the  utmost  care;  so  much  so,  perhaps,  as  to 
unduly  expose  them  to  sudden  changes,  by  making  them  more  sus- 
ceptible. 

(Mr.  C.)  I  know  it  is  a  common  belief  among  the  Scotch  shepherds 
that  feeding  frozen  tui-nips  to  ewes  causes  the  loss  of  the  lambs,  and 
great  care  is  taken  to  avoid  it.  In  mj'  dairy  my  plan  of  pulj^ing  the 
roots  and  mixing  them  with  cut  hay  or  fodder,  and  letting  the  heap 
ferment  and  heat  a  little,  avoids  this  danger.  It  is  quite  certain  that 
if  greater  precautions  were  taken,  with  a  constant  view  of  the  always 
impending  danger  of  this  disease,  its  fi-equency  would  be  very  much 
lessened. 

(Ml'.  H.)  The  danger  of  ergot  in  the  grasses  is  one  that  is  whoUj' 
overlooked,  and  yet  it  is  extremely  common.  Eye  is  very  much  sub- 
ject to  this  parasite  (of  which,  on  this  account,  it  wiU  be  useful  to 
give  an  illustration,  that  it  may  be  recognized).  This  fungus  is  a 
sure  provocative  of  this  disease,  as  is  well  known.  AVhen  the  grain 
is  tlireshed  the  spears  of  ergot  are  broken  up,  and  either  go  out  in 
the  chaff,  or  remain  to  be  ground  up  with  the  grain  in  the  mill.  In 
bolting  the  Hour  the  ergot  is  separated  with  the  bran,  and  lye  bran 
is  largely  used  as  food  for  dairy  cows.  Then  the  grasses  are  very 
subject  to  ergot,  especially  the  common  quack  grass,  timothy,  fox- 
tail, and  especially  the  rye  grasses  (see  illustrations),  and  precau- 
tions in  this  respect  are  indispensable. 

Then  the  jDrevalence  of  smut  in  the  small  grains,  and  especiallj'  in 
corn,  of  which  not  only  the  ear,  but  the  tassel  stalk  and  leaves,  are 
infested,  is  a  constant  danger,  because  the  effect  of  this  fungus  is 
j)recisely  similar  to  that  of  ergot.  I  notice  that  Prof.  Fleming,  in  his 
work  above  quoted,  gives  an  instance  in  which  eleven  abortions  in 
one  herd  were  directly  traced  to  the  use  of  smut  in  corn. 

In  regard  to  its  contagious  character,  j'our  suggestion  to  com- 
pletely destroy  the  discharged  fcetus  and  membranes,  and  to 
thoroughly  disinfect  the  stable  by  burning  sulphur  freely  in  it,  I  con- 
sider very  valuable;  and  I  would  add,  that  the  Uberal  use  of  lime  to 
destroj-  the  waste  matter  that  should  be  safely  buried,  or  the  biu'ning 
of  it,  would  remove  a  constant  danger.  Fiu-ther,  the  cow  shoidd  be 
removed  to  a  safe  place  by  itself,  and  its  manure  destroyed  or  decom- 
posed hj  lime  until  all  danger  of  infection  had  passed  away.  And  I 
think  every  owner  of  a  valuable  herd  would  be  wise  to  carefully  in- 
struct his  herdsmen  upon  these  points  and  especially  upon  those 
which  relate  to  the  prevention  of  the  trouble,  for  in  this  case  pre- 
vention is  the  onl}^  remedj'. 


110  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


CILVPTER  ^T:. 


GRASS  AND  ITS  MANAGEMENT. 

(111-.  C.)  There  is  probably  no  subject  in  wliicli  there  is  more 
interest  taken  bv  the  farming  community  of  the  United  States  at  the 
jjresent  time,  tliau  that  of  j^rass.  There  is  but  little  doubt  that  the 
gravest  blunders  have  been  made,  and  are  still  being  made,  in  the  use 
of  varieties  that  are  entirely  uncongenial  to  certain  soils,  and  the  con- 
tinuance in  use  of  the  older  sorts,  thi-ough  ignorance  that  there  are 
better  kind.s,  which  would  jiroduce  nearly  one-third  more  than  the 
varieties  now  commonly  gro^vn.  The  subject  of  grass  in  England  is 
much  better  understood  than  with  us,  and  exj^erimental  gi'ounds  have 
long  been  devoted  to  the  i)iu'pose  of  ascertaining  what  varieties  are  best 
suited  for  the  different  soils.  Here,  however,  we  have  ah'eady  several 
such  stations  devoted  to  the  same  piu-2:)ose,  but  they  have  not  yet  been 
long  enough  in  use  to  detinitely  determine  what  vaiieties  are  best 
suited  to  the  different  sections.  Of  coui-se  here  the  task  is  a  much 
more  comi^rehensive  one  that  it  is  in  the  limited  area  of  Great  Britain, 
as  we  have  such  wide  variation  of  cUmate  and  soil,  so  that  with  the 
very  best  endeavors,  it  will  take  many  years  before  we  can  hope  to 
attain  to  that  degree  of  jierfection  in  this  aU-important  matter  that 
they  have  now  reached  in  Enghmd.  In  addition  to  the  official  experi- 
mental stations,  which  are  attempting  this  work  in  several  sections  of 
the  country,  wde-awake  farmers  have,  liy  their  own  efforts,  made 
great  improvements  in  the  selection  of  gi-asses  suitable  for  jiermanent 
pastiu-e  or  hapng  lands.  The  vaiieties  of  gxas-ses  named  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  are  comparatively  few,  but  they  are  such  as  in  ray  long 
experience  I  have  found  of  more  or  less  merit.  There  ai-e,  no  doubt, 
many  other  varieties  that  may  yet  be  used,  that  may  answer  better 
than  some  of  those  named,  but  we  can  only  anticipate  in  this  matter. 
Heretofore  the  base  grass,  as  it  may  be  called,  for  hay  crop  in  all  the 
Northern  States,  has  been  Timothy;  but  experiments  that  have  been 
canied  on  for  a  jieriod  of  twenty  yeai-s  have  led  me  to  believe  that 

ORCHARD  GRASS 

is  much  better  fitted  to  be  the  leading  kind  in  mixtui'es,  whether  for 
pasture  or  for  hay,  or  used  alone  or  otherwise;  and  I  place  it  fai-  in 
advance,  not  only  of  Timothy,  but  of  any  other  gi-ass  we  have  thus  fju- 


Value  of  Okchaed  Grass. 


Ill 


in  cultivation.  Any  one  acquainted  with  the  growth  of  roots  will  see 
at  a  glance,  by  the  illustration,  that  it  is  a  plant  better  fitted  for 
permanency  than  any  of  the  other  varieties  of  grasses  mentioned  in 
this  work.  In  addition  to  that  it  has  a  merit  which  I  consider  to  be 
far  above  all  the  rest ;  this  is  the  early  date  at  which  it  is  in  a  condi- 
tion to  be  cut  for  hay,  whether  sown  alone  or  in  mixtures.  It  is 
found  that  it  can  be  cut  between  two  and  three  weeks  before  Timothy 


MEADOW  FOXTAIL. 


is  ready.  The  present  season  my  whole  crop  was  cut  and  in  the  bams 
about  the  20th  of  June,  at  least  twenty  days  before  the  other  fai-mers 
in  this  vicinity  had  begnin  to  cut  their  Timothy.  The  advantage  of 
this  earUness  is  not  only  that  it  gives  three  weeks  longer  for  the 
aftermath  to  grow,  but  another  reason,  far  more  important,  is,  that  at 
this  date  the  white  Ox-eye  Daisy  {Chrysanthemum  leuca>ithemum),  and 
other  troublesome  weeds,  are  not  yet  in  a  condition  to  seed,  so  that 
should  any  of  them  happen  to  be  in  the  fields,  they  ai-e  destroyed  by 
being  cut  before  they  have  ripened  their  seeds.  Any  one  riding  along 
the  raih-oads  through  Pennsvlvania,  New  Jersey,  New  York  or  Con- 


112  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

nec'ticut,  wi]l  imderstand  the  vast  importance  of  this  means  of  checking 
the  white  daisy,  when  it  is  seen  that  tens  of  thousands  of  acres  have 
been  given  up  to  the  possession  of  that  wortliless  weed.  It  is  in  full 
seed  at  the  time  Timothy  hay  is  cut,  and  its  seed  retains  vitahtv  for 
years.  "When  this  weed  is  mixed  with  the  hay  the  mischief  done  is 
not  only  for  the  succeeding  yeai-,  but  it  may  be  for  half  a  dozen  yeai-s 
after,  as  the  seed,  if  jilowed  down  into  the  ground,  will  remain  for 
yeai's,  and  will  germinate  when  brought  to  the  sui-face  again  by  a 
subsequent  plowing.  80,  then,  we  see,  that  if  we  are  able  to  use 
Orchard  Grass,  which  is  not  only  equally  as  good,  but  better  in  many 
resjjects  than  Timothy,  having  in  addition  the  vjiluable  quahty  of 
being  in  fit  condition  to  cut  at  a  season  before  the  devastating  white 
daisy  is  in  seed,  we  have  accompUshed  something  at  which  tlie  fai'miug 
community  may  well  rejoice.  There  is  an  unfortunate  matter  con- 
nected with  the  name  of  this  grass,  however,  which  we  shall  endeavor 
as  far  as  possible  to  set  right.  It  is  universally  known  with  us  as 
Orchai'd  Grass,  giving  the  impression  to  those  unactjuainted  with  it 
that  it  is  only  fitted  for  growing  in  the  orchai'd  or  under  partial 
shade.  Although  no  other  grass  will  do  better  under  such  circum- 
stances, yet,  like  all  other  strong  growing  grasses,  it  will  always  pro- 
duce a  heavier  ci'op  if  exposed  to  the  bright  and  oi)en  sunshine. 

Q.  Have  yoix  ever  in  your  practice,  ]Mi'.  Crozier,  used  Orchai'd  Grass 
without  the  admixture  of  clover  or  other  grasses  ? 

A.  Very  seldom.  Believing  in  the  great  imijortance  of  having  a 
variety  of  grasses,  either  for  hay  or  for  pasture,  I  make  it  a  nile  to 
include  never  less  than  five  and  sometimes  as  many  as  ten  varieties 
of  grass  together,  with  a  due  proportion  of  Clover.  The  mixture 
which  I  sow  alter  wheat  in  the  fall  or  spring,  for  each  acre  of  land,  is 
composed  of  the  following 

VAIUETIES  OF  GR.\SSES. 
Orchard  Grass,  Sweet  Scented  Vernal, 

Meadow  Foxtail,  Meadow  Fescue, 

Sheep  Fescue,  English  Eye  Grass, 

Rhode  Island,  or  Creeping  Bent,  Italian  Eye  Grass, 

Hard  Fescue,  lied  Top. 

(Eugi'avings  of  these  gi'asses  will  l)e  found  on  the  j)rcvious  and 
succeeding  pages.) 

One-half  of  the  bulk  being  in  Orchard  Grass,  while  the  other  h;ilf 
is  made  up  of  the  other  grasses  mentioned.  I  vary  the  (juantities  in 
these  mixtiu'cs  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  soil,  the  quantity 
needed  for  average  lauds  being,  per  acre,  about  five  and  one-half 
bushels,  or  seventy-five  pounds.  For  rich,  hea\7  lands  from  one- 
quarter  to  one-third  loss. 


Mixed  Grasses. 


113 


This  is  my  favorite  mixtm-e  for  either  mo-ning  lands  or  pasture, 
whether  sown  in  the  fall  or  spring;  to  which  is  added,  and  sown  in  the 
spiing  alwaj-s— as  it  is  rather  tender  if  sown  in  the  fall  in  this  latitude 
— ten  pounds  of  Red  or  Mammoth  Clover,  which  is  also  known  under 
the  different  names  of  Peavine  Clover,  Broad  Leaved  Clover,  and  in 
England  as  Cow  Grass.  This  variety  is  a  great  improvement  on  the 
ordinaiy  Red  Clover,  and  I  would  always  advise  it  to  be  sown,  for  the 
best  results.  Another  reason  why  it  should  always  be  sown  separ- 
ately is  that  its  gi-eat  weight  makes  it  difficult  to  be  kept  properly 
mixed  with  the  lighter  grass  seeds,  and  it  is  therefore  better  to  sow  it 


alone  in  the  usual  way,  over  the  grass  seed,  brush  harrowing  after 
sowing,  and  then  roUing.  This  mixture  as  here  given  is  much  more 
expensive  than  that  commonh'  used  for  seeding  down  either  for  hay 
or  for  pastiu'e,  the  first  cost  being  foiu"  or  five  times  as  much  as  that 
of  the  ordinary  mixture.  Thus  far  I  have  used  the  best  gi-ade 
of  seed,  costing  from  S20  to  $2.5  per  acre,  but  I  am  so  well  satisfied 
of  its  superiority,  that  if  it  cost  me  one-third  more,  I  would  still  con- 
tinue to  use  it,  because  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  investment 
is  not  for  one  year  only,  but  if  the  land  is  properly  treated  there  is  no 


114 


How  THE  Fa  KM  Pays. 


reason  why  pennaneut  mowing  land  cannot  be  kept  in  good  con- 
dition for  twenty  yeai-s,  producing  annually  one-third  more  weight 
than  the  mixture  in  common  use. 

This  quantity  of  grass  seed  is  probably  double  as  much  as  is 
usually  sown  per  acre,  but  as  in  the  quality,  so  in  the  (juautity,  I  consider 
that  the  importance  of  the  thicker  seeding  cannot  be  overestimated. 
Not  only  does  it  keej)  down  the  weeds,  but  what  is  of  even  gi-eater 
importance,  we  get  a  thicker  covering  of  the  whole  surface,  so  that 
in  case  of  severe  di-oughts,  instead  of  the  sun  beating  down  on  the 
bare  soU.  it  is  intercepted  and  shaded  by  the  thickly  growing  ]Dlant.s. 
It  paid  me  to  use  this  mixture  while  I  was  renting  land  at  $10  2)er 
acre  even  on  a  live  vears'  lease. 


EW££T  VESSAI.  GB.iSS. 


(Mr.  H.)  From  what  I  have  seen  I  can  well  attest  the  value  of 
your  opinion  in  this  matter,  as  the  hay-field  which  I  saw  you  in 
process  of  cutting  on  the  9th  of  June  is  now,  thii-ty  days  later,  one 
foot  in  height,  while  grass  lands  on  all  sides  of  it,  where  the  ortli- 
uarv  Timothj'  and  Clover  mixtiu'es  have  been  used,  ai-e  only  now  being 
harvested,  and  the  aftermath,  let  the  weather  lie  what  it  may,  can- 
not be  in  the  same  comlitiou  as  the  field  cut  on  the  !)th  of  Juno  now 
is,  and  i3robaV)ly  never  will  be  in  that  condition.  The  wonder  to  me 
is,  why  farmers,  with  the  example  that  youi-  land  sets  before  them,  do 
not  learn  that  five  acres  treated  by  this  method  would  produce  cer- 
tainly not  less  tlian  as  much  as  could  be  taken  from  twenty-five  acres 
treated  after  the  usual  slipshod  manner. 

Q.  Is  it  youi-  practice  to  sow  grass  seed  by  hand  or  by  machine  ? 

A.  I  alwavs  sow  grass  seed  and  clovers  bv  hand,  using  both  hands 


Sowing  Grabs  Seed. 


115 


and  sowing  crosswise,  bearing  in  mind  always  to  overlap  at  each  turn. 
Then,  after  the  field  has  been  sown  one  way,  I  tiu-n  and  sow  the 
other  way  over  the  same  gi'ound,  to  prevent  any  chance  of  waste  by 
unevenness. 

Q.  Is  not  a  machine  preferable  in  the  hands  of  a  novice,  than  to 
attempt  the  rather  difficult  j)roces3  of  distributing  the  grass  seeds 
evenly  by  hand  ? 

A.  Probably  it  might.  I  have  thus  far  done  all  the  seeding  on 
my  fai-m  myself,  and  I  must  sa}'  that  I  have  Httle  faith  in  sowing 
grass  seed  by  machine.      I  have  seen  many  instances  where  all  the 


\S^i0 


r 


.Ml 


MAililOTH  CLUVEIl. 


labor  of  the  preparation  of  the  land  for  the  grass  eroji  has  been  a 
failure  by  the  uneven  sowing  of  the  machine. 

Q.  But  if  you  were  unable  to  do  the  sowing  yoiu'self,  would  you 
not  j)refer  to  have  the  work  done  bj'  a  machine  rather  than  take  the 
risk  of  having  an  inexperienced  man  do  the  sowing  ? 

A.  I  would  rather  take  the  risk  of  allowing  my  best  hired  man  to  do 
the  work.  For  sowing  these  seeds,  however,  a  really  good  machine 
would  be  verj'  useful,  but  so  far  I  have  not  met  with  one  which  I 
would  trust  an  unskilled  workman  to  use. 

Q.  You  are  well  aware,  Mr.  Crozier,  that  the  great  mass  of  the  hay 
sold  in  the  United  States,  ijai'ticularly  in  the  Northern  States,  is  that 
produced  from  Timothy  Grass? 


IIG  How  THE  F.uoi  Pats. 

A.  Yes;  twcutv  years  ago  it  was  the  only  grass  1  gi'ew.  imtil  luy 
obseiTation  while  tnivehny  in  Europe  taught  me  bettei*,  and  I  have 
since  entirely  abandoned  it.  I  am  so  well  satisfied  with  the  results 
of  these  mixtures  above  mentioned,  that  I  could  not  be  induced  to  go 
back  to  gi-owing  Timothy.  I  beheve  that  one  of  the  gi-eatest  mis- 
takes that  the  farming  community  is  making  to-day,  is  the  almost 
universal  one  of  growing  Timothj'  as  the  base  grass  for  haying  lands 
and  for  pasture,  instead  of  using  Orchard  Grass  for  that  puii^ose. 
Mr.  r.  C.  Havemeyer,  who  owns  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
in-obably  best  appointed  fai-ms  in  New  York  State,  after  visiting  me 
last  summer,  supphed  himself  this  year  with  these  gi-asses  to  be  used 
for  mowing  lauds  and  jjasture,  and  I  am  certain  he  will  be  pleased 
with  the  result. 

TIMOTHY  .VXD   CLOVER. 

Timothy  and  Clover,  however,  is  still  the  standard  crop  for  mowing 
lands  and  for  pasture  in  the  great  majority  of  farms  in  all  sections  of 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States;  but,  as  I  have  before  stated,  I  feel 
satisfied  that  this  is  a  widesjiread  error,  and  that  those  who  will  take 
the  trouble  to  try  the  Orchard  Grass,  as  a  substitute  for  Timothy, 
are  likely  to  continue  its  use.  But  the  jDrejudice  in  favor  of  Timothy 
hay  is  so  great  in  many  sections,  that  it  may  be  found  that  no  other 
substitute  will  be  received,  and  in  such  cases  we  can  only  advise,  that 
to  obtain  the  best  results  from  Timothy  and  Clover,  they  should  be 
sown  on  heavy,  rich  loam,  or  peaty  soils,  as  these  are  the  best.  UiJon 
dry,  gravelly  or  sandj'  soils  these  grasses  never  give  results  woi-th  the 
labor,  unless  with  heavy  manuring.  "WTien  Timothj'  is  sown  with 
wheat  in  the  fall,  about  eight  to  ten  quarts  is  used  per  acre ;  or  if 
sown  alone,  and  not  to  be  seeded  with  Clover  in  the  spring,  double  that 
quantity  should  be  used.  When  Clover  is  sown  with  it  the  most 
suitable  kind  is  the  Mammoth,  at  the  rate  of  six  quarts  per  acre, 
because  it  gives  a  full  crop  the  first  season  of  mowing.  The  Timothy, 
as  is  well  known,  does  not  give  a  full  crop  until  its  second  year. 
This  hay  is  still  the  favorite  in  the  markets  of  our  large  cities;  it  is 
mainly  so  for  the  reason  that  the  mixtures  which  are  here  given  at 
length  (having  Orchard  Grass  as  its  base)  are  comparatively  unknown. 
When  it  is  known  that  the  Orchard  Grass  mixture  gives  permanent 
mowing  and  pasture  lands  for  a  life-time,  if  fairly  treated,  and  that 
Timothy  and  Clover  requires  renewal  every  three  or  four  year's — 
together  with  its  other  disadvantages  of  lateness  of  matuiity  and 
hghtness  of  crop,  compared  with  the  other — the  wonder  wiU  be  that 
fanners  are  so  slow  to  ajjpreciate  the  iliflference.     Already  some  of 


Value  of  Orchard  Grass  for  Pasture.  117 

the  wealthy  owners  of  the  best  studs  of  horses  in  the  country  will  use 
no  other  hay  than  what  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Enghsh  mixtm-e," 
behaving  it  to  be  in  aU  respects  better.  I  have  long  ago  discovered 
that  it  is  more  nutritious,  pound  for  jjouud,  to  feed  cattle  and  sheep, 
than  Timothy  hay. 

I  have  been  told  by  Mr.  Henry  Stewart,  who  has  been  quoted  else- 
where in  this  book,  that,  when  changing  the  feed  of  his  cows  fi'om 
hay  made  fi'om  Orchard  Grass,  Clover  and  other  mixed  grasses  to 
Timothy  hay  of  good  quality,  the  tri-weeklj-  churning  of  butter  fell 
off  from  25  lbs.  to  17  lbs.,  and  no  increase  of  grain  food  that  could  be 
safely  given  would  restore  the  loss.  Also  that  the  same  difterence 
has  occiUTed  when  changing  from  Orchard  Grass  to  Timothj'  in 
pastui'e  or  soiling.  I  beheve,  in  this  case,  Mr.  Stewart  used  Orchard 
Grass  alone  to  a  large  extent;  and  at  the  rate  of  four  bushels  of  seed 
per  acre,  the  cost  of  the  seeding  is  reduced  to  about  the  same  as  that 
of  Timothy  and  Clover.  This  example  is  one  of  the  sowing  of 
Orchard  Grass  alone,  or  nearly  so;  but  the  mixture  of  other  grasses, 
as  before  described,  will  always  give  better  results,  because  of  the 
larger  yield  produced. 

Timothy  and  Clover  are  so  general  in  all  the  meadows,  that  one 
would  suppose  Timothy  was  the  only  grass  that  would  succeed  in  our 
climate.  In  the  East,  Timothy  is  commonly  called  "  Herd's  Grass,"  a 
name  which  in  Pennsylvania  is  given  to  Red  Top.  This  formerlj-  led 
to  much  confusion;  but  at  present  the  name  "  Herd's  Grass "  is 
generally  dropped.  Timothy  is  especially  unsuited  to  the  too  com- 
mon method  of  treating  grass  lands.  There  are  farmers  who  still, 
after  taking  a  crop  of  hay,  pastui-e  the  land,  after  grass  has  made  a 
second  growth.  Timothj'  forms  a  bulbous  sweUing  at  the  base  of  its 
stems,  fi'om  which  next  year's  growth  will  start,  and  is  greatly  injui-ed 
by  cattle  tramjibng  it  and  eating  off  the  leaves  that  should  pro- 
tect the  bulb  during  the  winter,  so  that  Timothy  is  a  poor  pasture 
grass.  In  this  resfiect  Orchard  Grass  is  much  more  useful  than 
Timothj'.  We  never  knew  a  farmer  to  fairly  trj'  Orchard  Grass 
who  was  not  so  pleased  with  it  that  he  did  not  continue  its  use.  Yet, 
take  the  country  through,  it  has  made  its  way  but  slowlj".  It  is  jire- 
ferable  to  Timothj'  to  combine  with  Clover  for  hay,  as  the  two  are  in 
j)erfection — that  is,  in  blossom — at  the  same  time,  while  as  jDasture 
grass  it  is  vastly  superior.  Orchard  Grass  is,  in  fact,  a  true  pastui'e  gTass, 
while  Timothy  is  not.  It  at  once  recovers  after  it  is  closely  crojjpeci, 
and  the  earliness  of  its  growth  in  spring  is  greatly  in  its  favor.  The 
chief,  in  fact,  the  onlj'  objection,  that  has  been  made  to  Orchai'd  Grass, 
is  its  tendency  to  form  tussocks  or  clumps,  a  trouble  which  may  be 
overcome  hr  thick  seeding.     Thi-ee  bushels  of  clean  seed  to  the  acre. 


lis  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

on  rich  land,  and  four  bushels  on  lighter  soil  if  alone,  or  two  bushels 
if  Clover  is  to  be  sown  with  it,  will  give  a  sufficiently  thick  growth  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  stools. 

BERMUDA   GRASS. 

This  grass  has  long  been  considered  the  bane  of  the  agi-iculturist 
in  the  Southern  States.  The  slipshod  culture  too  often  in  iiractice 
there  made  its  presence  among  other  crops  the  most  troublesome  of 
all  weeds,  but  the  necessity  for  fodder  set  the  more  advanced  farmers 
to  utilize  this  grass  for  that  purpose.  TTiis  is  now  being  done  in 
many  sections  with  the  most  marked  success.  One  difficult^",  how- 
ever, interposes  :  the  seed  rarely  matures  in  qui-  Southern  States, 
and  even  some  samples  we  have  tested  from  Bermuda  have  failed 
to  germinate.  But  Nature  here  compensates,  as  she  always  does,  for 
her  partial  failui-es.  The  roots  and  stems  of  Bermuda  grass  root  at 
every  eye  or  joint,  and  when  these  are  iim  through  a  hay  or  straw 
cutter,  we  thus  have  a  ' '  seed  "  that  can  be  sown.  These  cuttings 
ai-c  sown  on  the  newly  plowed  field,  han-owed  in  and  rolled,  with 
a  reasonable  certainty  of  a  good  stand  of  grass.  Such  "  seed  "  cannot 
well  be  matle  an  article  of  merchandise,  but  may  be  transported  to 
moderate  distances,  and  for  local  use  this  plan  is  found  to  work  very 
well.  The  Hon.  Robert  N.  Gourdin,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  is  experi- 
menting on  a  large  scale  with  this  grass,  and  has  every  reason  to  be 
sanguine  of  great  benefits  to  be  derived  fi-om  its  culture  in  regions 
hitherto  ban-en  of  forage  for  stock.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  it  will  ever 
be  so  satisfactory  as  the  Alfalfa  (Lucern),  alluded  to  at  length  in  this 
work  as  a  forage  crois  for  the  Southern  States. 

It  will  no  doubt  be  interesting  to  insert  here  some  information 
given  at  our  request  by  Mr.  Goiuxlin  in  regard  to  Bermuda  gi-ass  : 

"  Bermuda  grass  does  not  make  seed  ■n-ith  us.  It  propagates  itself. 
It  i-uus  on  the  ground  as  a  vine,  having  numerous  joints,  from  each 
of  which  roots  stiike  down  and  blades  shoot  uf).  It  is  propagated, 
artificially,  by  transplanting,  and  takes  root  readily.  It  should  be 
transplanted  in  the  fall  and  winter  after  rain,  when  there  is  moisture 
in  the  land.  It  matui-es  and  gives  its  first  cutting,  ordinarily,  in 
•June.  Pei-sous  having  most  experience  with  Bermuda  gi-a.=s  place  the 
average  j-ield  of  hay  for  ten  years  at  four  tons  per  acre  per 
anniun.  This  is  a  cautious  and  safe  estimate  of  its  productiveness. 
It  grows  on  every  kind  of  land  here — wherever  corn  and  cotton 
grows,  and  is  their  great  enemy.  On  poor  land  Bei-muda  grass  is 
stuuipy  and  coarse  :  on  rich  land  its  growth  is  free,  and  its  blades  ai-e 
long,  tender  and  delicate.     Properly  cultivated  in  this  latitude,  ani- 


SouTHEKN  Grasses. 


119 


mals  prefer  this  grass  and  the  hay  made  of  it  over  all  other  varieties. 
I  do  not  know  how  far  north  it  grows,  but  I  have  observed  it  as  far 
north  as  Petersburg  and  Eichmond,  Virginia,  growing  in  the 
streets  and  vacant  lots  of  these  cities  as  it  does  in  Charleston,  and, 
apparently,  with  the  same  vigor." 


CTNODON  DACTTLOS  (BERr.nTDA  GRASS). 


A  more  recent  account  of  this  grass,  given  by  Dr.  Eavenal,  of 
Charleston,  S.  C,  states  that  the  yield  of  Bermuda  Grass  for  hay  for 
two  cuttings  was  equal  to  5,100  pounds  the  first  year  after  setting  out 
and  9,004  pounds  the  fourth  year.  The  cost  of  establishing  a 
meadow  is  about  $8  an  acre;  the  hay  is  sold  in  bales  at  $20  to  $2.5 
per  ton,  and  the  sale  is  as  easy  as  that  of  cotton,  beef  or  any  other 
farm  product.* 

•  Since  Bermuda  Grass  has  become  more  widely  cultivated  in  the  South,  it  is 
found  to  produce  seed,  and  the  seed  ia  now  to  be  procured  in  the  regular  way. 


120 


How  THK  Faiim  Pays. 


OTHER  SOITHEKX  GRASSES. 

The  question  of  grasses  aud  fodder  crops  for  the  Southern  States 
is  of  the  gi'eatest  importance.  The  chan^finjj;  character  of  the  agri- 
culture of  the  South  uecessaiily  di-aws  attention  to  the  rearing  of  Uve 
stock,  and  of  com-se  fodder  and  gi-ass  cro^js  must  follow.     It  has  been 


PAKICXTM  8ASGCISALK  (CBAB 


supi^osed  that  the  Southern  climate  is  not  favorable  to  gi-ass  and 
conseiiuently  few  farmers  ventvu'e  to  invest  in  live  stock  of  any  kind. 
But  this  idea  is  a  gi-eat  mistake.  ■  There  is  no  other  part  of  this  con- 
tinent where  grasses — of  tlie  right  kind — will  flom-ish  with  greater 
luxuriance  than  in  the  South,  and  it  is  particulai-ly  desu-able  that 
attention  should  be  called  to  this  fact  in  this  work,  which  is  devoted 
to  the  subject  of  profitable  farming  all  over  this  bro:id  land.  But 
there  are  an  exceedingly-  great  vaiiety  of  gi'asses,  and  this  lai-ge  family 
of  plants  has  its  finest  and  most  numerous  representatives  in  the 


Crab  Grass — Door-Yard  and  Bars- Yard  Grasses.  121 

South.  The  sorghums,  millets,  dourras,  the  panicums  and  others,  aU 
more  or  less  closely  related  to  the  Millet  family,  luxui'iate  in  the  warm 
soil  and  bright  simshine  of  the  Southern  States.  And  attention  is 
now  being  given  to  their  culture  in  many  locaUties.  After  Bermuda 
Grass,  the  common  native  grasses  which  spring  up  spontaneously 
when  the  fields  are  abandoned  to  them  are  found  to  have  a  special 
value  for  hay  as  weU  as  pastui'e.  One  of  the  most  valuable  of  these 
is  that  variety  once  thought  to  be  the  greatest  pest  of  the  cotton 
planter,  known  as 

CRAB  GRASS. 

This  is  a  species  of  Panicum  well  known  in  the  Northern  States  by 
its  pui-phsh  colored,  spreading,  finger-like  panicle,  and  which  appears 
late  in  the  summer  as  a  common  weed  in  lawns  and  fields.  But  it 
attains  a  wonderful  development  in  the  South,  even  upon  lands 
exhausted  by  continuous  cotton  growing.  A  case  which  hajjpened 
a  few  j-ears  ago  recently  came  to  my  knowledge.  A  Northern  farmer 
went  to  Georgia  in  search  for  a  cheap  tract  of  land  upon  which  to 
estabhsh  a  farm.  He  found  one  covered  with  a  luxurious  growth  of 
this  grass,  which  had  been  abandoned  in  desjiair  by  the  owner,  a 
cotton  planter,  and  was  offered  to  him  at  an  exceedingly  low  price. 
He  had  seen  baled  hay  fi-ora  the  North  in  car  loads  at  nearly  every 
station  on  his  journey,  and  conceived  the  idea  that  this  grass  would 
make  excellent  hay  and  sell  at  a  very  jjrofitable  price.  He  j^m-chased 
the  fai-m,  sent  to  a  fi-iend  in  New  York  to  buy  for  him  a  couple  of 
mowing  machines  and  a  hay  press,  and  baled  the  crop,  which  that 
year  amounted  to  over  300  tons,  and  far  more  than  repaid  his  whole 
investment.  This  instance  certainly  carries  a  moral  and  a  useful 
hint  to  Southern  fanners,  and  those  in  the  North  who  deske  to  find  a 
field  for  enteri)rise  in  the  sunny  South. 


DOOR-YARD   AND  BARN-YARD  GRASSES. 

Two  other  valuable  native  grasses  are  the  common  sjiecies  of 
Panicum  known  as  Door-yard,  or  Crow's  Foot  Grass,  and  Bam-yard,  or 
Cock's  Foot.*  These  are  exceedingly  common,  and  have  a  veiy  vigorous 
growth.  They  will  be  easily  recognized  fi-om  the  illustrations  as  also 
common  in  the  North,  appearing  in  flower  late  in  the  summer. 
They  are  both  becoming  valuable  pastui-o  grasses  all  over  the  South, 

*  Tills  grass  should  not  1)6  confounderl  with  Orchard  Grass,  jireviously  refen-ed  to 
in  thi.s  chaiiter,  and  also  called  Cock's  Foot  l)y  En;jli.=h  farmers. 


122 


How  THE  F.utM  Pays. 


Guinea  CxKAi^a 


123 


from  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  Carolina  and  Georgia  to  Texas,  and  the 
latter  species  is  a  very  iine  hay  grass.  It  is  beyond  a  doubt  an  ex- 
cellent fodder  crop  in  the  North,  jielding  a  very  heavy  cutting  of 
rich  and  succulent  and  exceedingly  sweet  forage,  that  is  eaten  with 
avidity  by  covrs.  It  thrives  well  in  low,  moist  grounds,  and  may  be 
foimd  in  such  places  having  a  rank  and  vigorous  growth,  which  at 
times  reaches  to  a  height  of  five  feet,  its  broad  and  long  leaves  adding 


PAOTCUM  JUMENTOEtTM  (GDINEA  GRASS). 

very  much  to  the  weight  of  product.  The  seed  is  large  and  like 
Millet  and  highly  nutritious,  and  might  be  usefuUy  sown  for  a  late 
fodder  crop  wherever  common  MOlet  is  gi'own. 


GtHNE.^.  GRASS. 


Of  late  years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  a  very  large  variety 
of  this  genus,  known  by  the  common  name  of  Guinea  Grass.  As  it 
has  been  confounded  with  another  popular  fodder  plant,  to  be  next 


124 


How    THE    FaBM    PaVS. 


noticed,  it  is  well  to  give  tlie  botanical  name  of  it,  viz.,  Paniciim 
jumentorum.  It  is  a  native  of  Africa,  and  was  originally  brought  into 
Florida  fi-om  the  "West  Indies,  and  is  rapidly  coming  into  use  all  over 
the  Southern  States.  It  is  a  perennial  and  reaches  a  height  of  six 
to  ten  feet,  vnih  vdAe  leaves,  almost  Hke  corn  blades,  two  feet  long; 
but  it  is  cut  several  times  in  the  season,  when  at  a  height  of  two  feet, 
for  gi-een  fodder  or  for  hay,  or  is  jiastured  repeateiUy  uutU  frost 
arrives,  when  the  herbage  is  cut  down  to  the  ground.     Its  cultui'e  is 


SOUGUL'M  HAUU'EN&E  (JOHSSOX  GBAi^.-^). 


as  follows:  The  root  throws  out  a  thick  mat  of  stolons,  like  those  of 
common  Quack  Grass,  but  much  thicker.  These  are  taken  up  and 
cut  into  i^ieces,  each  having  a  Inid.  The  cuttings  ai-e  set  out  in 
Mai-ch  or  April  in  fvuTows,  and  covered  ^vith  the  next  turn  of  the 
plow.  The  crop  is  ready  for  the  first  cutting  iu  May,  when  it  is  very 
tender  and  sweet,  and  can  be  fed  or  ciu'ed  for  hay.  Upon  fairly 
good  land  it  yields  a  cutting  every  six  weeks  until  it  is  cut  down  by 
the  frost,  when  the  root  remains  in  the  gi-ound  safely  and  sprouts 


JoHSSON  Grass — Japan  Clovee.  125 

again  the  nest  season.  "Where  the  colder  winters  necessitate  it,  the 
crop  is  grown  in  drills,  and  when  the  herbage  is  cut  down  a  fuiTow 
is  thrown  over  the  roots  as  a  protection  from  the  frost,  the  soil  being 
leveled  down  with  the  harrow  in  the  spring. 

JOHNSON  GRASS. 

This  species  is  known  as  Sorghum  halapense,  and  is  considered  even 
more  valuable  than  the  one  above  mentioned.  It  is  a  perennial,  and 
has  long  been  the  bugbear  of  the  cotton  planters,  fi-om  the  impossi- 
biUty  of  eradicating  it  when  it  once  gets  a  foothold  ia  the  soil  For 
a  forage  crop  this  is  certainly  a  most  excellent  quality,  especially 
when  combined  with  its  nutritive  and  agreeable  feeding  qualities 
and  its  abundant  yield.  The  lats  Mr.  Howard,  of  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  a  careful  and  practical  farmer  and  investigator,  said  of  it,  after 
an  experience  of  forty  years,  that  this  grass  was  preferable  to  all 
others  that  could  be  grown  in  the  South.  Its  analysis  shows  it  to  be 
more  nutritious  than  even  sweet  corn  fodder.  Its  seeds  are  as  large 
as  those  of  broom  corn,  and  its  leaves  are  long  and  tender.  The  stem 
reaches  a  height  of  six  feet.  Its  perennial  growth,  and  the  firm  hold 
it  takes  of  the  soil,  in  which  it  spreads  with  great  rapidity,  give  it  a 
high  value  for  a  fodder  grass  in  the  South. 

JAPAN  CLOVER. 

This  humble  but  useful  j)lant  also  deser\-es  some  notice  here.  It 
is  an  imjjorted  variety  of  Les-prdeza,  a  trefoil  aUied  to  the  Clovers.  It 
first  appeared  in  1849  near  Charleston.  The  seeds  ai-e  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  from  Japan  or  China  in  some  tea  boxes.  It 
rapidly  Sfiread  into  Georgia,  where  it  was  found  soon  after  neai- 
Macon.  In  1870  it  appeai-cd  in  Tennessee  and  now  spreads  fi'om  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi.  It  is  a  low  perennial  plant,  with  a 
spreading  habit,  much  hke  that  of  White  Clover.  It  flourishes  on 
the  jjoorest  soils,  preventing  washing  by  rains,  and  furnishing  not 
only  good  grazing,  but  fertilizing  the  soil  by  the  decay  of  its  stubble, 
as  Clover  does,  or  by  tui-ning  under  as  gi-een  manure.  It  is  not  a 
hardy  jjlant  and  will  not  thrive  further  north  than  Virginia.  For  a 
sheep  pasture  it  is  scarcely  excelled  in  value  by  any  other  forage  jilant. 

The  following  extract  from  a  report  madebylVIr.  William  Saunders, 
Suijerintendent  of  the  grounds  of  the  Agricultui-al  Depai-tment, 
Washington,  D.  C,  made  on  the  Soils  and  Products  of  Florida,  in 
compliance  with  an  order  from  that  Department  made  in  1883,  will 
be  found  interesting  and  valuable  in  regard  to  this  subject: 


126 


How  THE  Farm  Pavs. 


"  One  of  the  gi-eatest  vrants  in  Florida  is  that  of  food  forhve  stock. 
Northern  grasses  and  clovers  are  of  small  value ;  they  are  not  adapted 
to  the  climate.  Lucem,  or  Alfalfa  {Medicagn  xativa),  has  the  reputa- 
tion of  succeeding  well  iu  warm  climates,  and  would  doubtless 
flourish  in  the  rich  bottom  lauds  when  once  they  are  fitted  for 
cultui-e.  This  being  a  perennial,  noted  for  a  ijropensity  to  send  its 
roots  deep  into  the  soil,  would  be  almost  as  pennaneut  a  plant  as  the 
dwarf  palmetto,  and  infinitely  more  usefid.     Lueeru  is  one  of  the 


LEbPEDEZA  blliUIA   (JAPAN  CLOVEB). 

most  ancient  of  cultivated  plants,  and  us  a  forage  j)lant  for  drv,  warm 
climates  has  always  been  held  iu  high  estimation.  (For  further  in- 
formation on  this  crop  see  jjage  87.) 

"  Among  rapid  growing  grasses  none  excel  the  Italian  Rye  Grass, 
Lolium  italicum.  Seeds  of  this  grass,  sown  in  November,  would  pro- 
duce a  crop  fit  for  cutting  in  April  for  hay.  The  winter  season  being 
also  the  diy  season,  would  be  so  far  unfavorable  to  continued  gi'owth, 
but  the  want  of  rain  could  be  met  by  a  proper  selection  of  soil;  the 


Practice  More  Successful  than  Science.  127 

■worst  selection  would  be  high  and  dry  fields;  the  best,  a  thoroughly 
drained  swamp.  In  an  out-of-the-way  corner  to-daj'  (15th  February) 
I  observed  a  small  area  covered  with  the  Johnson  Grass,  Sorghum 
halapense,  which  had  made  over  two  feet  of  gl•o^vth,  and  in  good  con- 
dition to  cut  for  cattle  food  or  for  hay.  Tliis  looked  like  an  exijeri- 
mental  plat,  and  it  gave  evidence  of  the  value  of  this  grass  for  this 
region  of  country.  And  I  look  upon  the  Johnson  Grass  as  having 
greater  prospective  value  than  either  of  the  plants  before  named.  In 
Alabama  and  in  others  of  the  Southern  States  it  is  proving  to  be  one 
of  the  best  grasses  for  hay  or  for  feeding  in  green  state,  that  has  so 
far  been  introduced  to  cultivation.  This  grass  has  long  been  known, 
but  its  persistent  gi'owth,  and  the  difficulty  of  eradicating  it  from 
cultivated  fields,  caused  it  to  be  regarded  as  a  nuisance.  Its  greatest 
fault  is  its  greatest  merit.  A  few  days  ago,  in  Polk  County,  in  con- 
versation with  an  Alabama  farmer,  I  asked  him  what  he  found  the 
most  profitable  crop  to  raise  in  that  State.  He  promjjtly  rej^lied 
hay.  To  the  further  question  as  to  what  grasses  he  cultivated  for 
this  purpose,  he  answered,  the  Johnson  Grass.  He  stated  that  he 
made  three  cuttings  yearlj-,  and  fi-om  these  his  returns  averaged  five 
tons  of  hay  from  an  acre.  This  is  grown  on  good  bottom  land,  and 
all  the  cultivation  it  receives  is  to  plow  it  down  once  in  two  or  thi-ee 
years,  then  give  it  a  very  thorough  han-ovnng,  and  an  increased 
growth  ensues.  A  portion  of  the  roots  are  thus  destroj'ed,  which 
prevents  them  fi-om  becoming  too  thickly  matted,  keeps  up  the 
fertility,  and  increases  the  growth.  It  would  seem  that  a  j^laut  so 
weU  adapted  to  a  warm,  sunny  chmate  mU  ultimately  prove  of  great 
value  all  through  this  Southern  countrj*. " 

The  best  season  for  sowing  Johnson  Grass,  in  Florida  or  similar 
latitudes,  would  be  October  or  November.  It  should  be  sown  in 
the  usual  manner  for  grass  seed,  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre. 
Q.  As  you  ai'e  aware,  Mr.  Crozier,  the  question  of  grasses  is  one  of 
such  interest  as  to  draw  out  several  works  on  the  subject,  elaborate 
not  only  in  their  botanical  descriistious,  but  also  rejilete  with  chemical 
analyses  and  ah  other  scientific  data  connected  with  the  subject.  Have 
you  given  such  works  any  consideration,  and  if  so  what  oisinion  do 
you  hold  as  to  their  value  ? 

A.  As  a  working  farmer,  hfe  has  always  appeared  to  me  too  short  to 
dabble  in  these  nice  questions,  and  I  am  jJerfectly  wiUing  to  leave  it 
to  such  men  who  have  the  inclination  and  the  time  to  fritter  away  on 
such  subjects;  but  to  the  great  mass  of  jJractical  farmers,  from  their 
education  and  training,  it  is  and  always  will  be  as  a  "  sealed  book." 
"Whether  it  is  that  the  pursuit  of  such  knowledge  prevents  those 
engaged  in  it  from  getting  at  the  real,  practical  operations  of  farming 


128  How  THE  Faioi  Pays. 

and  gardening,  I  do  not  know;  but  there  is  no  denying  the  broad 
fact,  that  the  cases  on  record  are  very  few  (personally  I  know  not  nor 
never  knew  of  one),  where  men  w-ho  have  tried  to  j)raetice  what  they 
preached  on  these  subjects  have  been  successful.  TNTieuever  I  see  a 
man  engaged  in  agricultural  operations  preparing  himself  by  the 
chemical  analyses  of  his  soils  and  of  his  maniu'es,  I  at  once  make  up 
my  mind  that  that  man's  chances  for  success  are  not  as  good  as  those 
of  his  unlettered  contemporary,  who  probably  does  not  know  the 
meaning  of  the  words.  Still  I  would  not  discoiu'age  those  who  ai'e 
engaged  in  these  scientific  i^iu-suits,  and  who  have  the  means  to 
experiment,  as  the  day  may  yet  come  when  scientific  farming  and 
scientific  gai'deuiug  may  give  practicjil  results. 

Q.  To  return  again  to  the  subject  of  grasses — do  you  use  the 
mixtui'e  previously  mentioned  on  all  portions  of  yoiu"  fanu  ? 

A.  No;  on  hillsides  that  ai'e  washed  by  the  heavy  rains  I  use 
Rhode  Island  Bent  Grass,  for  the  reason  that  it  forms  new  roots  and 
shoots  from  the  joints,  thus  holding  the  soU  and  preventing  its  washing 
down.  I  find,  also,  that  it  aftbrds  excellent  pasture  for  sheep.  I  sow 
it  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  to  the  acre  (sometimes  as  much  as  four 
bushels,  if  the  land  is  very  steep),  together  with  a  mi.xture  of  two  or 
three  pounds  of  "Wliite  Clover,  as  this  is  a  low  growing  vimety  that 
sheep  are  very  fond  of.  By  this  method  I  have  protected  and  kept 
very  steep  hillsides  from  being  washed  by  rains.  The  same  mixtui'e 
is  excellent  for  sheep  pasture  for  high  wood  lands,  where  the  trees  are 
not  too  close  together. 

Q.  About  what  average  weight  of  hay  does  the  mixture  which  you 
advise  for  mowing  produce  ? 

A.  From  two  and  one-half  to  three  tons  per  acre,  though  four  tons 
is  nothing  unusual  under  high  cultivation.  Sometimes  the  second 
growth  is  cut  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  lambs  or  young  ciilves. 
"\^^len  not  cut  the  sheep  and  young  stock  ai-e  turned  onto  it.  When 
cut  I  have  had  it  jjroduce  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  tons  per  acre ; 
but  always  after  a  second  cutting  is  made  a  top  dressing  of  barn- 
yai'd  manure  or  bone  meal  should  be  put  on,  which  stands  in  place 
of  the  droppings  from  the  calves  and  sheep  when  the  land  is  2)as- 
tured. 

Q.  Is  it  not  better,  in  laying  land  to  permanent  pasture  or  perma- 
nent hay,  by  sowing  grass  seed  mixture  by  itself,  to  do  so  without 
sowing  wheat  or  other  grain  ? 

A.  Yes ;  and  in  fact  it  is  the  very  best  way  to  sow  down  to  perma- 
nent grass,  as  the  croj)  of  wheat  or  rye  takes  away  two-thirds  of  the 
manure  the  first  year,  besides  checking  the  growth  of  the  gi-ass.  It 
is  a  common  idea  that  the  grain  is  a  fostering  crop.     This  is  a  great 


Timothy  ant)  Clover.  129 

mistake.  Instead  of  fostering  the  grass  it  really  robs  it  of  its  food, 
and  the  shade  checks  its  growth.  By  carefully  preparing  the  ground 
in  August,  and  sowing  the  seed  in  the  usual  waj*,  the  young  gi-ass 
grows  vigorously  and  rajjidly,  and  a  crop  of  hay  can  be  taken  the 
next  yeai-.  In  this  preparation  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
the  soil  be  made  very  fine  and  very  firm,  not  only  to  give  a  perfect 
bed  for  the  small  seeds,  but  to  thoroughly  compact  the  fine  soQ  about 
them.  In  doing  this  work  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  is  intended 
to  last  for  many  years,  and  no  expense  or  care  that  ai-e  necessary  to 
secure  i^erfection  in  it  should  be  withheld.  It  has  been  previously 
recommended  to  sow  the  clover  seed  in  the  spring  ;  this  is  not 
always  necessary,  as,  if  it  is  sown  in  August,  the  clover  roots  become 
strong  enough  to  withstand  the  winter  safely.  It  cannot  be  reiterated 
too  often  or  too  strongly,  that  the  roUing  of  the  soil  after  grass 
seeding  is  of  the  greatest  necessity  for  success,  jjarticularly  when 
done  in  August. 

Q.  When  stock  raising  is  the  main  object  in  view  on  the  farm, 
would  you  advise  the  sowing  of  grains  at  aU  ? 

A.  We  gain  many  little  advantages  by  sowing  gi-ain.  We  often 
get  half  the  value  of  the  manure  used  the  first  season,  and  we 
get  the  straw  besides. 

Q.  When  gi-ass  seed  and  clover  are  sown  with  a  grain  crop,  is 
there  any  return  from  the  gi'ass  the  following  summer  or  autumn  V 

A.  There  usually  is  not,  but  when  sown  alone  there  is. 

Q.  "WTiat  is  your  usual  time  of  sowing  grass  seeds  alone  wdthout 
the  grains'? 

A.  The  latter  part  of  August.  The  next  year  it  will  give  a  fair 
crop  of  hay  by  the  end  of  Juno  or  eaily  in  July,  a  crop  always  as  heavy 
and  often  heavier  than  the  ordinary  crop  from  estabhshed  Timothy 
lands.  Timothy,  in  my  experience,  is  the  most  exhaustive  grass  to 
land  that  we  have.  The  first  and  second  seasons  it  is  as  bad  as  a  crop 
of  wheat  for  exhausting  the  soU,  and  I  find  my  neighbors  can  only 
run  it  thi'ee  years,  the  last  crop  being  very  poor  or  hardly  worth  cut- 
ting. Weeds  seem  to  take  the  place  of  Timothy,  and  esj^eciaUy  if  the 
summer  previous  has  been  dry,  the  small  roots  of  the  grass  suffering 
from  the  sun  beating  do^vn  upon  them,  and  the  freezing  and  thawing 
of  winter  leaves  the  ground  bare  in  many  places;  hence  destruction 
of  the  roots  and  consec[uent  faOure  of  the  crojD. 

Q.  I  would  ask,  however,  Mr.  Crozier,  if  Timothy  and  Clover, 
treated  as  Uberally  by  toj)  dressing  with  manure  as  you  treat  all  your 
grass  lands,  would  not  continue  much  longer  than  the  period  you 
name  ? 


130  How  THE  Fabm  Pays. 

A.  My  experience  ■with  it  is  that  it  vrould  not.  But  in  many 
localities,  and  even  generally  in  the  Central  States,  farmeiis  do  this 
with  partial  success.  Theii-  method  is  as  follows:  Timothy  is  sown 
■with  the  wheat  or  rye  in  the  fall ;  Clover  is  sown  in  the  spring.  A 
full  crop  of  hay  is  taken  nest  year,  and  a  top  dressing  of  tine  manure 
is  given  as  soon  as  the  hay  is  taken  oflf.  This  protects  and  feetls  the 
roots,  and  the  ground  is  soon  covered  and  protected  by  a  new  gro^wth. 
A  second  crop  of  hay  is  taken  the  next  year,  or  perhaps  t^wo  cuttings 
are  made;  the  grass  is  pastui-ed  the  year  after,  and  the  sod  is  turned 
under  in  the  spring  for  com.  Corn  is  followed  by  oats,  and  oats  by 
wheat,  and  this  completes  the  rotation.  This  is  very  good  practice 
for  those  farmers  under  their  circumstances,  and  pays  them  ■well ;  all 
the  better  when  it  is  well  done.  I  am  positive  that  no  crop  of 
Timothy  ■wiU  last  well  over  three  years,  when  the  land  must  be 
reseeded.  Every  season  I  have  scores  of  letters  on  this  all-important 
subject  to  the  farmer,  asking  me  if  there  is  any  way  of  getting  perma- 
nent mowing  lands  and  pasture  -without  this  continuous  trouble  of 
plowing  do^wn  and  reseeding.  I  tnist  that  what  I  have  here  ad\'ised 
in  the  grass  mixtm'e  and  method  of  culture  wiU  answer  as  a  general 
reply  to  all  such  queries.  I  have  explained  my  -views  far  more  fully 
and  at  length  than  can  possibly  be  done  in  the  necessarily  limited 
compass  of  a  letter,  besides  sa^\-ing  me  many  hours  of  valuable  time, 
which  at  many  seasons  I  can  iU  spare. 

Q.  I  would  Hke  to  refer  again  to  the  mixture  of  grass  seeds  which 
you  prefer.  This  mixture  will  no  doubt  suit  yoiu-  manner  of  gro^wing 
grass  veiT  well;  but  do  I  understand  you  to  say  that  it  is  to  be 
recommended  under  all  circumstances'? 

A.  I  would  not  go  so  far  as  that  These  seeds  are  xer\-  costly,  and 
might  not  suit  the  circumstances  of  a  great  many  farmei-s.  There  are 
some  varieties  which  might  be  left  out  in  many  cases.  For  instance, 
Italian  Eye  Grass  is  not  a  perennial,  and  might  be  omitted,  as  it  ■will 
run  out  the  second  yeiu-  after  soaring.  The  jierennial  Eye  Grass 
would  be  sufficient  ■without  it  Ehode  Island  Bent  is  so  neai-ly  Uke 
Red  Top,  that  both  need  not  be  so^wn,  and  the  latter  only  used.  So 
the  Sheep's  Fescue  is  useful  eliiefly  where  sheep  ai-e  pastui'ed,  as  it  is 
a  small  variety,  and  seiTes  chiefly  to  msike  up  a  succession  of  herbage. 
Sweet  Yemal  Grass  might  also  be  left  out,  as  this  gi-ass  is  quite  preva- 
lent, and  comes  in  natiu'aUy  in  almost  all  jilaces.  The  quantitie.s  too, 
might  be  reduced,  and  all  the  vai-ieties  retaineiL  But  certainly  I 
would  ailvise  that  not  less  than  twenty-five  poimds  of  seed  altogether 
should  be  so^mi  per  acre,  which  is  only  half  of  the  amoimt  of  seed  I 
use.  But  for  myself  I  prefer  heavy  seeding,  and  believe  it  is  the 
cheapest  in  the  end,  because  in  sowing  these  mixed  gi-asses  it  should 


Clover — Blfe  Grass.  131 

not  be  forgotten  that  we  ai-e  seeding  once  for  twenty  or  tbii-ty  years 
or  even  more,  if  the  soil  is  suitable  for  a  j)ermanent  meadow. 


The  culture  of  clover  as  a  special  crop  is  often  found  desirable  both 
for  hay,  for  seed  and  for  plowing  in  as  a  preparation  for  wheat  or 
corn.  When  thus  grown  it  is  sown  on  the  wheat  or  rj'e  in  the  spring 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  iu  a  fit  condition,  and  may  be  haiTowed  in 
with  the  light  slojoing  tooth  han'ow  or  the  brash  harrow,  which  not  only 
covers  in  the  seed  but  also  greatlj"  benefits  the  grain  crop.  The 
clover  may  be  pastured  in  the  fall  if  it  has  a  rank  gi'owth,  but  other- 
wise it  should  be  left  on  the  ground  and  form  a  mulch  during  the 
■wLater.  The  next  year  it  may  be  cut  early  for  soUiiig  or  mown  for 
hay  ia  June;  the  after-gro-svth  vail  furnish  a  crop  of  seed  and  the 
nest  spring  the  sod  with  all  the  herbage  may  be  j)lowed  ia  for  corn. 
A  clover  sod  makes  an  excellent  preparation  for  wheat.  For  this 
purpose  the  clover  is  j)lowed  under  in  August;  the  ground  is  im- 
mediately rolled  to  comjiact  it  and  in  September  a  good  harrowing 
win  fit  the  soil  finely  for  the  wheat  or  rye.  The  clover  hay  is  es- 
pecially valuable  for  cows  or  sheep,  but  should  never  be  fed  to  horses 
on  account  of  its  dustiness,  which  is  provocative  of  the  common  dis- 
order known  as  heaves.  It  requii-es  slow  cui'ing  in  the  cock,  and 
should  not  be  too  rapidly  or  too  much  dried,  or  the  leaves  wiU  be  in 
great  part  broken  off  and  lost. 


BLUE  GRASS. 

The  Blue  Grass  pastures  of  Kentucky,  Missouii,  West  Virginia  and 
parts  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  have  a  world-wide  reputation.  They  offer 
examples  of  permanent  grass  lands  equal  to  any  in  the  world,  which 
are  a  standing  rebuke  to  those  persons  who  declare  that  there  can  be  no 
permanent  pastures  or  meadows  in  oiu-  American  climate.  There 
are  thousands  of  acres  of  these  lands  which  have  never  been  plowed, 
but  which  became  covered  with  a  natural  growth  of  this  grass  as 
soon  as  the  timber  was  cut  off.  As  it  has  a  sj^reading  root,  it  soon 
takes  p)ossession  of  the  soil  and  makes  a  thick  sod.  It  is  especially  a 
pasture  grass,  and  under  the  name  of  June  Grass  fiUTiishes  the  pas- 
ture which  makes  such  localities  as  Herkimer  and  Oneida  Counties  in 
New  York  so  favorable  for  dairy  piuposes,  and  so  productive  of 
high  flavored  cheese   and  butter.     The  State  of  Iowa  also  affords 


132 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


similar  instances.  It  thrives  best  on  dry,  rich,  limestone  lands,  and  if 
the  gi-ass  is  not  eaten  down  in  the  summer  it  will  afford  a  luxuriant 
pastm-e  all  through  the  winter  in  Southern  districts,  and  until  the 
ground  is  buried  under  the  snow  in  the  North.  The  Southern 
mountain   region   is   peculiarly  adapted  in  soil  and  climate  to  this 


KESTUCKY  BLUE  ORAES  (POA  PR.4TENSIS). 


grass.  "When  sown  alone  two  to  three  bushels  of  seed  are  required 
to  the  acre.  It  may  be  sown  with  wheat  or  rye  in  the  fall.  On 
account  of  its  slow,  weak  growth  at  fii-st,  it  is  better  to  sow  the  seed 
with  a  grain  crop. 


RED  TOP  AND  FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS. 


These  two  grasses  arc  specially  adapted  for  low,  wet  lands.  Re- 
claimed swamji  meadows  produce  them  in  luxuriance.  Elsewhere, 
and  on  dry  ground,  they  afford  fair  i>asture  but  a  Ught  hay,  and  are 
not  to  be  recommended  for  such  soils.     But  where  the  land  lies  low, 


Fowl  Meadow  Grass. 


133 


and  is  subject  to  overflow,  there  are  uo  other  grasses  so  valuable  as 
these,  as  they  make  a  dense,  tough  sod,  and  afford  good  pasture,  and 
also  furnish  a  heavy  j'ield  of  excellent  hay.     They  are  better  mixed 


FOWI.  MEADOW  OBASS  (POA  SEKOTINA.) 


together,  one  and  one-half  bushels  of  each  being  sown  early  in 
August  or  in  the  spring,  and  on  the  soUs  referred  to  the  seed 
must  necessarily  be  sown  alone. 


134 


How  THE  Farm  Pats. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 


THE  CUTTING  AND  CURING  OF  HAY. 

Q.  Tou  have  already  stated  that  you  cut  your  hay  of  the  Orchard 
Grass  and  other  grass  mixture  from  the  10th  to  the  20th  of  June. 
In  what  condition  are  the  vaiious  grasses  at  that  time  ? 

A.  The  Orchard  Grass  and  Clover  are  in  full  bloom,  and  the  others 
are  near  to,  or  a  little  past  that  stage.  In  this  condition  the  grasses 
are  most  valuable  for  stock.  If  allowed  to  stand  until  they  seed,  they 
are  not  only  more  diy  and  woody  in  textm-e,  but  they  also  exhaust 
the  land  to  a  great  degree  and  weaken  the  roots.  A  large  majority 
of  our  best  farmers  agree  that  hay  and  clover,  and  in  fact  all 
crops  that  are  used  for  haj'ing  jiui'poses,  are  best  cut  in  that  con- 
dition when  they  contain  the  largest  percentage  of  saccharine  matter, 
which  is  said  to  be  when  they  are  in  full  blossom. 

This  condition  I  beUeve  to  be  better  than  if  the  seeds  of  the  grasses 
were  matured,  as  the  juices  are  just  in  the  state  to  be  most  palatable 


for  feed.  Of  course  all  hay  nowadays  is  cut  by  machine.  Of  these 
machines  there  are  a  large  variety,  which  are  popular  in  special 
localities;  but  I  have  always  used  the  Buckeye,  and  consider  it  the 
best.  After  mowing,  the  hay  is  turned  or  tedded  and  raked  into 
swaths,  and  then  put  into  small  cocks  and  left  until  the  following 
day,  when  the  cocks  ai'e  turned  over,  and  made  anew,  and  left  until 
the  next  day.  The  hay  is  then  taken  to  the  barn  and  put  into  the  mow, 
about  a  peck  of  salt  being  scattered  over  each  load,  and  trodden  as 
firmly  as  can  be  done.     The  salt  makes  the  hay  palatable  to  the 


Cutting  and  Curing  Hay. 


135 


stock,  and  I  believe  tends  to  lessen  the  fermentation  which  always 
occurs  in  hay  when  it  is  put  in.  the  barn,  and  so  prevents  danger  of 
mustiaess.  In  this  way  the  hay  comes  out  as  bright  and  green  in 
the  winter  or  spring  as  when  put  into  the  mow.  Formerly,  when  I 
tilled  very  much  more  land  than  I  do  now,  I  had  to  stack  most  of  the 
hay,  which  I  consider  the  best  way  to  keep  it;  that  is,  in  round 
stacks,  containing  fi'om  ten  to  fifteen  two-horse  loads,  placing  it  in 
the  mows  being  only  a  matter  of  convenience.     A  stack,  when  prop- 


erly headed,  thatched  and  roped,  wiU  keep  for  several  years.  A 
very  convenient  way  of  stacking  hay  is  under  open  sheds,  commonly 
known  as  ban-acks.  These  are  made  of  four  heavy  posts,  set  in  the 
ground  or  framed  together,  and  a  movable,  foui--sided  roof  of  boards 
or  thatch.  The  roof  can  be  raised  or  lowered  and  let  down  upon  the 
hay,  affording  complete  protection  from  the  weather.  In  this 
country,  where  stacking  is  not  much  practiced,  it  is  not  always 
possible  to  find  a  workman  or  a  farmer  that  can  finish  a  stack  so  as 
to  make  it  rain-proof. 


BOARD  BOOFED  BARRACK. 


Q.  At  what  height  do  you  cut  your  hay '? 

A.  The  height  at  which  it  should  be  cut  depends  somewhat  on  the 
moistness  of  the  season.  If  the  season  is  a  wet  one  we  can  cut  two 
inches  from  the  ground;  if  the  weather  is  veiy  dry,  from  three  to  four 
inches. 

Q.  I  observe  that  you  top  dress  with  manure  after  cutting  your 
hay,  particularly  where  it  is  cut  short — the  object  in  that,  I  prestmie, 
is  to  protect  the  roots  of  the  grass  from  the  sun,  the  manm'c  acting 


136  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

as  a  mulch,  as  well  as  for  its  fertilizing  properties,  at  that  time  of  the 
year  ? 

A.  That  is  exactly  the  reason.  Although  the  fii-st  heavj-  rains 
cany  down  the  greater  part  of  the  fertilizing  properties  of  the 
manure,  the  substance  of  it  is  left  to  act  as  a  mulch  until  the  after- 
math grows  sufficiently  to  protect  itself. 


CLOVER  HAY. 

Q.  WTiat  is  understood  by  the  tenn  "  Clover  Hay  "  ? 

A.  When  a  piece  of  land  is  sown  to  wheat  and  grass  in  the  fall, 
clover  seed  is  sown  the  following  spring,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out 
of  the  gi-ound,  and  the  soil  is  sufficient!}-  dry.  The  ground  is  then 
brush  haiTowed  and  rolled  in  the  usual  manner.  The  wheat  is  cut 
ofif  in  July.  About  September  the  young  Clover  is  either  fed  off  with 
sheep  or  young  cattle — heavy  animals,  such  as  cows  or  horses,  should 
never  be  permitted  to  go  upon  the  field — or,  if  not  fed  off,  it  should 
be  niu  over  with  the  mowing  machine,  and  cut  three  or  four  inches 
from  the  ground,  and  the  cutting  left  on  as  a  mulch.  By  June  of 
the  next  year  the  clover  is  ready  to  cut  for  the  first  time.  This 
cutting  is  made  when  the  crop  is  in  full  blossom,  and  before  a  single 
head  has  tuined  brown.  It  is  advisable  then  to  give  the  clover  a  top 
dressing  of  mamu'e  or  plaster,  to  hasten  the  growth  of  a  second  crop, 
which  is  cut  in  August.  If  the  ground  is  rich  two  hay  crops  are  thus 
taken. 

Q.  Is  it  an}-  more  trouble  to  ciu'e  clover  hay  than  the  ordinary 
grass  hay  ? 

A.  Yes;  clover  having  so  much  water  in  it,  takes  more  time  and 
care  to  cure  it  than  hay.  Clover  should  be  cut  when  the  weather  is 
dry  and  the  dew  is  off,  and  should  be  immediately  put  into  cocks  and 
cured  in  these  cocks  so  as  to  jsreserve  all  the  leaves,  for  if  left  in  the 
usual  way  in  the  sun  until  it  becomes  dry,  the  leaves  would  get  brittle, 
and  in  tedding  or  raking  with  the  horse-rake  woidd  fall  off.  My 
plan  of  curing  clover  is  to  cut  it  when  the  dew  is  oft",  and  about  two 
hours  afterwards  rake  it  up  into  small  cocks  and  leave  it  until  the 
next  day,  when  the  cocks  are  turned  with  the  fork  and  made  over 
again,  but  lai-ger.  Here  the  clover  sweats  and  heats  or  ferments 
and  gets  rid  of  a  good  deal  of  its  moistiu'e,  and  dries  soft  and  tender, 
instead  of  brittle.  The  second  day  it  is  ready  to  be  put  in  the  mow 
or  stack. 

Q.  Is  there  not  more  danger  fi-om  wet  weather  in  saving  clover 
than  in  making  grass  hav? 


Clover  roR  Green  Fodder.  137 

A.  Clover  is  a  more  leafy  plant  than  grass,  and  Ues  more  open  and 
loosely  in  the  swath  or  cock.  It  is  upon  this  account  that  it  is  better 
to  put  it  in  cocks  and  cui-e  it  in  that  way,  both  because  it  is  easily  in- 
jui-ed  by  over-di'j-ing  and  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  also  by  rain.  To 
secui-e  it  against  rain  while  in  the  cock,  hay  caps  are  found  useful. 
These  are  squares  of  heavy  brown  cotton  sheeting  fifty-four  inches 
wide,  bound  at  the  edges  and  having  a  loop  at  each  comer.  One  of 
these  is  spread  over  a  hay  cock,  and  secured  by  pushing  wooden  pins 
through  the  loojjs  into  the  haj'.  If  these  are  taken  care  of  as  they 
.should  be,  they  wiU  last  a  great  many  years. 


Q.  Is  Clover  ever  sold  in  a  green  state  in  the  market  in  our  large 
cities  ? 

A.  At  certain  seasons  there  is  a  large  demand  for  it;  it  is  cut  and 
tied  in  bundles,  ■which  brings  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents  each. 
It  is  thus  given  to  city  horses,  not  so  much  as  a  feed,  but  as  a  sort  of 
tonic  or  alterative.  A  heavy  crop  of  Clover  in  this  way  is  often  made 
very  profitable,  netting  possibly  foiu-  times  as  much  jser  acre  as  when 
(h'ied  for  hay.  In  the  vicinity  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  there  ai-e  fields 
of  Clover  which  must  produce  not  less  than  $500  per  acre,  when  sold 
in  this  condition;  because  the  fanners  renting  such  fields  pay  the 
extraordinary  price  of  fifty  pounds  steriing,  or  $250,  per  acre  rent 
annually.  The  conditions  under  which  Clover  is  grown  in  this  way  are 
jjecuhar.  It  is  usually  on  land  adjacent  to  the  outlets  of  the  sewage 
from  the  city,  which  is  utUized  by  being  put  on  the  land  in  the  fall 
and  spring,  and  which  gets  it  in  such  a  condition  of  fertility  that 
sometimes  even  in  that  cold  climate  six  cro^DS  are  cut  in  one  season. 
I  observed  verj'  recently  that  there  was  filed,  in  the  ofiice  of  the  County 
Oerk,  New  York  City,  the  certificate  of  incorporation  of  the  National 


138  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

Sewerage  and  Sewage  Utilization  Company.  The  capital  stock  is  fixed 
at  $3,600,000,  di-i-ided  into  3(5,000  shares.  I  heartilj'  wish  them  as 
much  success  as  has  been  gained  at  the  City  of  Pulkuan,  in  Illinois, 
where  this  sewage  is  used  to  fertilize  a  farm  of  about  300  acres,  with  a 
proiit  of  $8,000  last  year,  equal  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  whole  cost. 
If  the  same  conditions  could  be  got  here  as  in  Scotland — and  there  is 
no  reason  why  they  should  not — one-fourth  more  crop  ought  to  be 
taken  in  our  higher  temiierature.  A\'Tierever  the  soiling  system  is  prac- 
ticed we  should  have  our  bam-yard  composts  to  put  on  the  Clover  tields 
inheu  of  city  sewerage.  That  is  within  every  fanner's  reach,  and  the  cai't 
or  team  should  be  used  both  ways,  a  load  of  Clover  being  brought  to 
the  bai-n  and  a  load  of  manui'e  taken  back  and  spread  on  the  land, 
repeating  this  continuously  diuing  the  entii-e  season.  This  .system 
has  other  advantages  as  weU.  Cattle  fed  in  their  stalls  in  this  manner 
will  give  double  the  quantity  of  mUk,  and  it  is  of  better  quality  than 
when  they  are  driven  to  pasture.  For,  when  driven  to  the  fields  by- 
boys  or  dogs,  they  are  often  recklessly  hun-ied,  and  as  a  general 
rule,  in  coming  from  the  pasture,  especially  in  the  fly  season,  they 
will  often  make  a  fast  run  to  the  barns,  and  so  iujure  the  milk  in  the 
udder  until  it  is  nearly  worthless.  All  this  is  avoided  by  the  soiling 
system.  If  tied  up  in  their  stalls  they  do  not  require  so  much  water, 
and  their  supply  can  be  regulated  more  easily;  whUe  if  let  out  to 
pasture,  in  our  dry  chmate,  where  water  is  often  scarce,  they  become 
heated  in  going  to  the  tank  or  pond,  and  di-ink  too  much. 

Q.  Is  there  not  sometimes  a  stiU  later  cutting  made  of  the  Clover? 

A.  A  third  cutting  is  yery  often  made,  but  rarely  for  hay,  as  the 
seed  is  gi-eatl_y  more  valuable.  "When  the  Clover  is  cut  for  seed,  it  is 
usual  to  make  the  second  cutting  earher,  so  as  to  give  ample  time  for 
the  plants  to  make  blossoms  and  mature  seed  by  the  fall.  The 
Clover  is  then  hard  and  woody  and  not  of  much  vjilue  for  hay,  but  it 
will  often  j-ield  five  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre ;  and  as  this  is  worth 
from  $6  to  $8  a  bushel,  and  sometimes  more,  the  gain  is  more  than 
that  fi-om  all  the  hay.  The  seed  of  Clover  is  coutaiued  in  small  pea 
or  bean  like  hulls,  and  requii'es  a  pai-ticulai'  method  for  separating  it 
The  dried  crop  is  threshed  in  the  machine  in  the  usual  way  and 
separated  from  the  stems,  and  the  chaff  is  afterwards  hulled  by  a 
Clover  huUer  some  time  dm'iog  the  winter.  This  is  the  end  of  the 
Clover,  excepting  upon  strong,  rich  land  it  may  last  over  the  second 
year  and  yield  the  crop  of  seed  the  third  year.  Clover  is  a  biennial 
upon  light  soils  and  poor  lands,  and  cannot  be  dej^ended  upon  after 
the  second  year,  or  for  more  than  two  crops  of  hay  at  the  most;  but 
on  better  and  heavier  soils  it  is  a  short  perennial,  and  maj-  live 
through  the  third  or  even  into  the  fourth  year-,  and  give  one  or  two 


Top  Dressing  Grass  Land.  139 

crops  each  year.  If  the  seeding  has  been  liberal,  and  the  Clover  is 
manured,  the  yield  is  far  more  jsrofitable.  No  greater  mistakes  are 
made  in  farming  than  short-sighted  economy  in  the  saving  of  seed. 
The  tables  given  in  many  seedsmen's  catalogues  I  consider  to  be  one- 
third  too  little. 

Q.  You  have  alluded  several  times  to  the  top  dressing  of  grass 
lands.  In  what  manner  do  you  consider  it  best  to  be  done,  and  v^hat 
kinds  and  quantities  of  maniu'es  do  you  use  for  that  puiijose  ? 

A.  I  would  mention  first  the  appUcatiou  of  hquid  manure,  as  the 
value  of  this  is  underrated,  and  it  is  too  often  wholly  wasted.  The 
best  way  of  preparing  Uqirid  manure  for  such  purpose  I  have  found 
to  be  the  following:  Build  a  cistern  in  the  barn-yard,  at  the  lowest 
point,  of  such  capacity  as  may  be  required,  but  be  sure  it  be  large 
enough,  and  run  pipes  made  of  boards,  or  sewer  pipes,  three  or  four 
inches  diameter,  into  it,  from  the  different  buildings,  where  there 
may  be  any  drojipings  from  the  cattle  or  hogs  or  sheep,  so  that  all 
the  drainage  will  flow  into  the  cistern.  In  hauling  this  hquid  manure 
to  the  fields,  I  use  a  large  hogshead  placed  on  two  wheels.  It  is 
fiUed  by  means  of  a  pump,  and  is  driven  to  the  field,  a  perforated  pipe, 
such  as  is  used  for  street  sprinkling,  and  attached  to  the  hogshead, 
is  opened,  and  the  horse  is  driven  along  at  an  easy  walk,  this  being 
done  always  when  other  work  is  not  j)ressing.  This  I  find  to  be  the 
best  top  dressing  for  meadow  lands,  if  put  on  in  the  spring  and  fall, 
but  not  in  the  hot,  dry  weather.  On  laud  that  has  been  pastured, 
and  hasbecome  "  hide-bound,"  as  I  call  it,  I  usually  take  an  iron  or  steel 
tooth  harrow,  and  harrow  it  both  ways  thoroughl}'.  The  Acme  Harrow 
is  better  still,  and  the  cutters  can  be  adjusted  so  as  to  loosen  up  the 
surface  to  whatever  extent  may  be  desired.  After  the  ground  has 
been  harrowed  in  this  manner,  I  re-seed  with  the  grass  mixture 
already  mentioned,  at  the  rate  of  two  to  three  bushels  per  acre, 
according  to  the  needs  of  the  land.  If  the  gi'ass  is  thin,  I  put  on 
more.  If  it  is  stUl  thick,  less.  I  then  top  dress  with  composted 
manure  that  has  been  turned  over  a  few  times  and  is  worked  up  fine, 
after  which  I  run  over  it  with  the  brush  haiTow  and  then  roll.  The 
quantity  of  manure  to  be  used  depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  the 
condition  of  the  land,  although  I  might  here  say  that  there  is  very 
Httle  likelihood  of  any  farmer  ever  having  manure  enough  to  put  it 
on  to  excess.  I  use  all  the  way  from  five  to  twenty  two-horse  loads  per 
acre,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  land  or  the  quantity  of  manure 
I  have  on  hand.  In  the  absence  of  barn-yard  maniu-e  a  compost  of 
lime  and  loam,  with  the  soils  from  the  backs  of  fences,  is  excellent, 
or  plaster  at  the  rate  of  one  tou  jier  acre  wUl  answer.  This  I  know 
is  a  good  deal  more  plaster  than  is  commonly  used,  but  my  principle. 


140  How  THE  Farm  Pa  vs. 

as  you  know,  is  to  manure  very  liberally,  because  that  is  the  surest 
way  to  make  the  fai-m  pay.  Bone  meal  at  the  rate  of  300  to  500  pounds 
per  acre,  or  hard  wood  ashes  at  the  rate  of  100  bushels  to  the  acre, 
will  all  answer  ven-  well  in  lieu  of  barn  manure.  In  all  cases  it  is  of 
gi'eat  imj5ortance,  in  top  dressinj^f  grass  lands,  whether  for  pasture  or 
mowing,  after  the  apphcation  of  seed  and  mauui'e  has  been  made,  to 
roll  thoroughly.  A  failui-e  to  roll  will  entail  a  loss  of  all  the  labor, 
by  evaporation  and  drying  of  seed,  if  the  pasture  has  been  re- 
seeded. 

ENSILAGE. 

Q.  "What  is  your  opinion,  "Mi:  Crozier,  of  the  ensilage  system  ? 

A.  I  have  some  hesitation  in  expressing  an  opinion  of  any  system 
that  I  have  not  had  actual  experience  with,  and  I  have  had  nothing 
to  do  with  eusUage.  My  success  in  stock  raising,  by  the  methods  I 
have  piu'sued  for  the  last  twenty  years,  has,  perhaps,  made  me  a  little 
prejudiced  against  innovations  of  this  kind;  but  I  can  only  form  an 
02)iuion  in  a  general  way  on  the  subject.  I  cannot  understand  why 
a  green  crop,  which  we  know  contains  from  ninety  to  ninety-live  jjer 
cent,  of  water,  jjreserved  by  the  ensilage  system,  can  be  equal  to  the 
same  fodder  from  which  the  water  has  been  expelled  by  dicing,  and 
which,  when  mixed  with  roots,  as  we  do  it,  contains  all  the 
elements  of  a  complete  food.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  must 
ceiiainly  be  a  cheajier  and  better  system  than  ensilage.  I  speak 
with  hesitation,  however,  on  this  subject,  never  having  had  practice 
with  it,  and  am  willing  to  suspend  my  final  opinion  until  the 
system  has  had  a  further  trial.  I  know  that  many  have  claimed  that 
it  has  "been  a  great  success  with  them.  On  the  other  hand,  I  know  of 
several  cases  where  it  has  been  abandoned,  and  the  system  of  feeding, 
such  as  we  practice,  has  been  again  resorted  to.  A  large  and  suc- 
cessful stock  raiser,  in  the  vicinity  of  Toronto,  Canada,  who  had 
expended  $3,000  on  sUos,  which  he  had  constructed  in  the  very  best 
jjossible  manner,  after  a  three  years' trial,  says  that  he  has  abandoned 
the  system,  and  has  fallen  back  to  the  old  method  of  feeding  with  dry 
fodder  and  roots  during  tbe  winter  mouths.  StUl,  in  this  case,  there 
may  have  been  some  bad  apphcation  of  the  system,  which  made  its 
working  unsatisfactory,  and,  as  I  have  before  said,  until  it  has  had 
years  of  comparative  trial  with  other  methods,  no  decided  opinion 
should  be  expressed;  because  no  one  man's  or  half  a  dozen  men's 
experience  of  such  an  important  matter  should  be  final.  The  whole 
claim  of  the  ensilage  system,  as  I  undei-stand  it,  is  that  it  is  used 
instead  of  fresh  green  feed,  and   it   certainly  would  be  a  great  advan- 


EXSILAGE.  141 

tage  for  cattle  for  that  purpose,  if  we  bad  not  mangels  to  mis  with 
the  dry  fodder.  Like  all  widely  diverging  systems  of  agriculture  that 
have  their  special  adherents,  the  only  safe  decision  can  be  arrived 
at  by  observation  of  the  results.  If  we  find  that  herds  of 
cattle  raised  by  the  silo  can  be  kept  in  as  good  condition  as 
those  raised  by  the  fodder  and  root  system,  then  it  maj'  take  prece- 
dence, provided  that  it  can  be  shown  that  the  expense  attending  such 
system  is  less,  but  if  no  better  results  entails  an  increased  cost,  then 
it  will  not  be  hkelj-  to  supersede  the  old  method.  To  those  who  are 
interested  in  this  matter  the  proceedings  of  The  Ensilage  Congi'esa, 
pubhshed  by  the  New  York  Plow  Co.,  New  York,  will  give  fuU 
information.  In  the  Country  Gentleman,  oi  March  17th,  1881,  is  the 
following  article  written  by  me,  on  the  subject  of  ensilage,  which  will 
give  my  views  at  length.  I  also  add  the  corroboration  of  that  opinion 
by  F.  D.  Curtis,  in  a  letter  in  the  Country  Gentleman  of  same  date. 


ENSILAGE  NOT  SATE   FEED. 

' '  I  had  a  letter  from  a  German  farmer,  who,  in  his  youth,  had  to  take 
a  good  deal  of  sauer  kraut.  He  says  he  stUl  takes  a  httle  now  and  then, 
but  on  a  cold  winter's  day  he  wants  solid  food.  When  Dr.  Bailey 
and  others  preach  ensilage  they  will  doubtless  cause  many  who  read 
the  Country  Gentleman  to  look  in  a  few  years  on  their  deserted  silos 
with  feehngs  of  sadness.  The  cow  ivill  eat  ensilage.  Certainly  she 
wiU;  but  how  much  will  it  benefit  her?  How  much  fat  will  a  1,000- 
pound  cow  gain  on  seventy  pounds  of  ensilage  per  day  ?  How  much 
sohd  food  is  there  in  this  seventy  pounds?  Some  of  our  learned 
friends  saj'  not  more  than  sis  per  cent.  If  this  is  so,  then  cattle  wiU 
do  well  on  atr  and  water.  If  the  gentleman  had  said  that  cattle  would 
eat  200  pounds,  then  I  would  have  more  belief  in  the  benefits  they 
might  derive  from  it.  "\Mien  the  Doctor  states  that  village  farmers 
can  keep  a  cow  on  one-fourth  or  one-half  an  acre  of  land,  we  know 
that  this  is  so.  The  German  and  French  peasants,  living  near  large 
cities  where  land  is  worth  from  $100  to  $500  per  acre,  raise  truck 
for  village  and  city  markets.  They  make  pits,  and  put  aU  the  tops 
of  their  vegetables  in  them,  and  cover  them  up  with  eai'th,  and  this 
they  rejjeat  with  two  or  thi-ee  crojis  in  a  season;  but  it  comes  out  in 
the  winter  like  tea  leaves  after  they  have  been  steeped  (not  so  green 
as  people  in  America  say  the  ensilage  comes  out) ;  but  how  long  do 
they  run  theu"  cattle  on  this?  Only  a  short  time,  you  will  find.  You 
win  remember  that  the  first  case  of  ijleuro-pneumonia  ever  heard  of 
in  America  was  traced  to  Dutch  cattle.     Ensilage,  I  am  afraid,  wiU 


142  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

eventually  injure  the  constitutions  and  hence  weaken  the  lungs 
of  cattle.  Cows,  they  tell  us,  do  well  on  brewers'  griiius.  How  long 
do  they  do  well  ?  My  opinion  is  often  asked  whether  ensilage  is  being 
fed  by  the  breeders  on  the  Channel  Islands  or  in  England  ?  I  think  not. 
John  Bull  generally  is  somewhat  more  of  an  old  fogy  in  such  things  than 
we  Americans  are,  and  does  not  jump  so  quick  at  conclusions,  and  saves 
himself,  in  consequence,  much  loss  fit'om  unwise  experiment.  I  beg  to 
say,  be  not  teinjated  by  this  new  plan  of  feeding,  until  time  will  tell 
its  true  worth.  Wii.  Ceozieb. 

"  Northport,  L.  I." 


MR.   CROZIER  ENDORSED. 

"  The  silo  discussion  is  getting  interesting.  It  is  natural  for  people 
who  attempt  new  schemes  to  imagine  them  successful,  or  at  least  to 
be  loth  to  admit  that  they  are  failures.  I  have  been  in  this  jjosition 
myself,  and  hence  am  inclined  to  take  the  declarations  of  the  advocates 
of  silos  with  some  allowance.  The  imagination  of  experimenters 
often  paint  then-  attempts  with  rosy  hues;  but  stern  reahty  after 
awhile  changes  the  picture.  I  fail  to  see,  as  yet,  the  practical  value 
of  going  to  so  much  trouble  and  expense  to  preserve  water  (juice), 
and  cannot  comprehend  how  this  water  can  be  increased  in  nutritive 
value  by  being  preserved,  even  though  it  may  have  an  alcoholic 
smell.  The  difference  between  cornstalks  kept  in  a  silo,  and  cornstalks 
cured,  is  almost  entu'ely  a  difference  in  the  amount  of  water  contained 
in  them.  The  shrinkage  in  water  makes  a  shrinkage  in  weight  and 
bulk,  but  can  make  only  a  small  reduction  in  the  nutritive  qualities. 
Admit  that  there  is  by  curing  a  smsxll  loss  in  the  nutrition,  is  it  equal 
to  the  cost  of  the  bUos  and  the  pxti'a  labor  required  to  preserve  the 
fodder  in  it?  Mr.  Bailey,  who  is  an  ingenious,  if  not  an  interested 
writer  on  silos,  takes  the  ground  that  a  silo  is  not  as  expensive  as  a 
barn,  and  urges  the  point  that  silos  may  do  away  with  barns,  as  they 
upset  the  principles  of  science.  This  is  quite  a  radical  position,  to 
say  the  least;  but  it  loses  its  force  when  we  consider  that  bai-ns  are  not 
necessary  for  the  j^reservation  of  cornstalks.  They  wLU  keep  better 
in  stacks,  which  is  the  most  economical,  and,  at  the  same  time,  one  of 
the  best  methods  of  preserving  this  kind  of  forage.  Silos  without  a 
granary  or  meal  box  wiU,  in  my  judgment,  make  disappointment  in 
the  yield  of  good  butter.  Mr.  Croziers  system  of  feeding  is,  as  I  know 
by  fi'equent  obsei-vation,  a  practical  success.  I  have  never  been  on  a 
farm  where  cattle  were  always  in  any  better  condition  and  more 
productive  in  rich  mLLkanfd  good  butter  than  his.    His  system  of  root 


Objections  to  Ensilage.  143 

feeding  seems  to  fumisb  just  the  necessary  quantity  of  succulent  food 
reqiiii-ed  for  health  and  a  large  yield.  Too  much  watery  food,  which 
is  the  kind  the  silo  must  necessaiily  supply,  is  not  the  natural 
food  for  cattle  in  cold  weather.  That  the  stalks  are  all  eaten, 
when  taken  fi-om  a  silo,  is  no  more  true  than  when  cui-ed 
and  cut  uj).  I  have  doubted  the  economy,  after  repeated  trials,  of 
cutting  stalks  at  all  for  cattle,  as  so  httle  is  left  by  them  uneaten.  It 
certainly  will  not  pay  to  go  through  with  aU  the  silo  processes  in 
order  to  get  the  butts  of  cornstalks  eaten  up.  There  is  no  paiiicular 
value  in  bulk,  so  long  as  bulk  does  not  add  strength  to  the  food,  and 
when  it  is  considered  that  bulk  makes  a  great  deal  heavier  and  more 
laborious  handhng,  I  fail  to  appreciate  how  two  tons  of  bulk  in  a  silo 
can  be  any  better  than  one  ton  in  which  the  nutritive  elements  are 
condensed.  In  other  words,  I  cannot  see  how  the  presence  of  a  ton 
of  water  should  enhance  the  value  of  cornstalks.  In  warm  weather 
this  juice  takes  the  place  of  water  for  drink,  but  in  winter  so  much  is 
not  required  and  must  be  hurtful.  I  must  endorse  INIi-.  Crozier  in  his 
distrust  of  the  practical  value  of  silos,  and  commend  his  outspoken 
convictions,  although  he  seems  to  be  pitted  almost  alone  against  them. 
Cornstalks  are  good  food  for  cows,  but  so  succulent  in  their  nature 
that  when  dry  they  shovild  be  fed  with  something  more  substantial,  or 
the  animal  will  rapidly  run  down.  Silo  fodder  is  still  more  washy, 
unless  the  fennentation  furnishes  a  stimulant  which  is  at  the  same  time 
victuals  and  drink.  May  be  this  is  one  of  the  scientific  principles 
which  silos  upset,  proving  that  fermented  juice  is  not  a  stimulant,  but 
food,  and  food  proper  for  transformation  into  mUk  and  butter.  Verily 
these  are  days  of  progress,  when  alcohol  becomes  food,  and  tallow 
(Oleomargarine)  is  butter.  F.  D.  Cuktis. 

"Kirby  Homestead,  N.  Y." 

(Mr.  H.)  I  notice,  Mr.  Crozier,  on  a  careful  reading  of  the  report 
of  the  EnsUage  Congress,  held  in  New  York  last  year,  that  neai-ly  all 
the  members  present  were  enthusiastic  advocates  of  the  system,  and 
according  to  the  statements  there  made,  there  is  but  little  doubt  that 
it  has  proved  of  valu.e  to  many.  Still  I  would  have  been  pleiased  to 
have  seen  it  compared  with  the  feeding  by  root  crops  pulped,  as  you 
term  it,  after  yonr  method,  because  that  seems  to  me  the  turning 
point  of  the  whole  controversy,  as  it  is  certainly  unfair  to  make  a 
comparison  against  dry  food,  such  as  meal,  bran,  etc. ,  when  mixed 
with  cut  corn  fodder,  instead  of  compai-ing  it  with  the  corn  fodder  or 
hay  mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  pulped  or  crashed  roots.  In  this 
connection  I  will  quote  from  a  communication  pubhshed  in  the 
Country   Gentleman  for  April,  1881 : 


144  How   THE  Fabm  PAYa 


EN'SILAGE   COMPARED   WITH   ROOTS. 

Let  it  be  .-nlmitted  that  forty  tons  of  green  fodder  can  be  produced. 
Then,  to  be  fair,  let  us  admit  that  fortj'  tons  of  mangels  per  acre  can 
be  grown  with  equal  ease  and  at  no  more  cost,  when  i)ut  in  the  pits, 
than  that  of  the  fodder  preserved  in  the  silo.  Then  we  are  ready  to 
comjiai'e  the  actual  value  of  these  two  crojjs  for  feeding  to  daiiy  cows. 
The  followug  figures  are  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Connecticut 
Experiment  Station,  and  will  be  found  to  be  authentic: 


COMPOSmox  OF 

FODDEB  COHN. 

"Water 85 .  70 

Ash 1 .  23 

Albuminoids 1 .  20 

Crude  Fibre 4.95 

Carbohydrates C .  73 

Fat 0.18 


The  advantage  is  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  mangels, 
and  in  favor  of  the  sugar  beets  nearly  100  per  cent.,  as  regaixls 
nutritive  value.  A  butter  maker,  whose  business  depends  on  the 
quahty  of  his  product,  will  hesitate  to  use  sour  or  alcoholic  fodder  in 
a  condition  of  decomposition,  when  he  can  use  jjerfectly  fi'esh  and 
well  flavored  food,  such  as  mangels  or  beets.  It  may  be  objected 
that  the  crop  of  forty  tons  of  roots  is  extravagant :  but  it  is  not,  either 
as  regards  mangels  or  Lane's  Sugar  Beet.  By  planting  in  rows  thirty 
inches  apart,  and  eighteen  inches  in  tlie  rows,  roots  of  eight  j^ounds 
each  can  be  grown  with  ease.  I  have  had  them  to  weigh  fourteen  to 
twenty-four  jjounds  each,  and  have  grown  fodder  corn  at  the  rate  of 
sixty  tons  to  the  acre,  and  know  that  neither  of  these  large  croj)s  can 
be  grown  without  high  fertilizing,  and  that  it  is  as  easy  to  grow  roots 
as  com,  and  as  easy  to  haiTest  the  one  as  the  other.  Boots  of  eight 
pounds  each,  eighteen  inches  apai-t,  will  yield  forty-six  tons  per  acre, 
and,  with  the  advantage  in  jDoint  of  nutritive  value,  will  be  equal  to 
about  sixty  tons  of  com  fodder,  which  not  one  in  a  hundi'ed  will 
reach  as  easily  as  one  in  ten  -n-iU  reach  forty-six  tons  of  mangels. 
Now  it  seems  to  me  that  it  is  a  useful  thing  to  point  out  these  facts, 
when  there  is  danger  of  many  pei-sons'  heads  being  turned  in  regard 


LSGEI& 

SCGAB  BEXTS. 

iS.O 

81.5 

0.8 

0.7 

1.1 

1.0 

0.9 

1.3 

9.1 

15.4 

0.1 

0.1 

Ensilage  Compared  ^^TH  Roots.  145 

to  tliis  new  idea,  and  especially  wheu  it  cannot  be  tried  without  the 
sinking  of  a  few  hundred  dollars  in  making  a  sUo,  and  gathering 
stone  to  pile  on  top  of  it.  AVhat  are  those  farmers  to  do,  who, 
UDiortunately,  have  no  stone  for  this  j'Ui-jDose,  and  find  the  market 
for  it  strong  at  $4  a  load  ?  They  need  not  fi'et,  however,  if  they  can- 
not have  their  silo,  because  the}'  can  gi'ow  mangels  and  sugar  beets — 
the  large  variety  of  Lane's  Improved,  and  not  the  sugar  beet  which 
is  small — and  do  as  well,  j^erhaps,  with  these,  as  they  could  with 
ensilage.  Doubtless  the  new  improvement  is  of  great  value  in  its 
place ;  but  its  place  is  by  no  means  universal,  and  when  the  present 
excitement  is  cooled  down,  it  will  j^i'obably  be  found  of  verj'  rare 
ajjiilieatiou ;  but  root  growing  and  feeding  roots  are  of  universal 
application.  H.  Stewakt. 

Bergen  County,  N.  J. 


146  How  THE  Pak-m  Pays. 


CHAPTER  Yin. 


LIVE    STOCK  OF  THE   FARM. 

Callh: 

I  suppose  that  the  question  I  am  about  to  ask  you,  'Mx.  Crozier, 
Las  l)een  ijropounded  to  you  in  the  past  twenty  yeai's  hundi-e  Js  of 
times — what,  in  your  opinion,  is  the  most  profitable  breed  of  cattle,  at 
the  present  day,  for  the  fanner  engaged  in  dairying  ? 

JERSEY   C.VTTLE. 

A.  I  think  the  Jersej'  (or  as  it  is  sometimes  improperly  called, 
"  Aldernej',"  a  name  commonly  applied  to  both  Jerseys  and  Guern- 
seys), is  the  most  jDrofitable  for  butter  making,  though  for  milk  a  cross- 
bred between  the  Short  Horn  and  the  Jersey  is  the  best,  or  a  cross-bred 
between  the  AjTshire  and  Jersey,  will  produce  rich  mUk  and  more  of 
it  than  the  thoroughbred  Jersey.  Some  twenty  years  ago  I  kept  a 
small  herd  of  Short  Horns,  and  another  of  Ayrshires,  together  with 
Jerseys.  The  demand  for  Jersey  butter  since  then  has  increased  so 
much  that  I  sold  out  the  Short  Horns  and  Ayrshires,  and  confined 
myself  exclusively  to  Jerseys.  In  my  opinion,  for  the  dairy  farmer 
who  has  a  large  city  for  a  market,  such  as  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  Chicago,  Cincinnati  or  St.  Louis,  within  thi-ee  or  fom-  hun- 
dred miles.  Jerseys  ai-e  more  profitable  to  raise  at  the  jiresent  time 
than  anj-  other  breed.  For  seUiug  milk  in  the  villages  or  cities  I 
should  say  the  Ayrshires  Avere  the  most  jirofitable.  They  are  easy 
keepers,  hardy,  and  will  produce  fi-om  4,000  to  G,000  pounds  of  milk 
in  one  season,  the  milk  generally  bringing  from  foui-  to  five  cents  jjer 
pound  at  retail.  The  Ayrshire  milk  is  considered  to  be  the  most 
healthful  for  children.  But  when  the  object  is  a  large  quantity  of 
milk,  without  regard  to  fineness  of  quality,  then  the  Dutch,  or  as 
they  are  common!}'  called,  Holsteiu,  would  be  preferable.  It  is 
claimed  for  this  breed  that  they  are  hu-ge  producers  of  milk;  but  my 
objection  to  them  is  that  they  are  hard  keepers,  and  will  consume 
neai-ly  double  the  amount  of  food  that  an  Ayrshii-e  cow  can  be  kept 
on.  Or,  at  least,  I  would  rather  keep  two  Ayrshire  cows  than  one 
Holstein.     I  have  had  Ayrshire  cows  to  give  sixty  pounds  of  milk 


Jersey  Cattle. 


147 


148  How  THE  F.utM  Pays. 

per  day  when  fresh,  although  it  is  claimed  that  the  Holsteins  hare 
given,  under  the  same  conditions,  eighty  pounds.  For  this  reason, 
the  Holsteins  being  large  milkers,  are  coming  into  demand  somewhat, 
to  supply  cheese  factories  iu  the  "\^'estem  States,  and  will  probably  be 
the  best  cow  for  that  puqwse  in  the  "West,  as  the  large  amount  of 
feed  necessary  to  sustain  them  is  not  so  great  a  consideration  there 
as  it  is  here  with  us.  One  great  advantage  of  the  Jersey  cow,  forty 
or  fifty  miles  from  a  lai-ge  city,  is  the  cream,  as  cream  can  be  sent  that 
distance,  and  returns  thirty-five  cents  per  quai-t  at  least  I  find  that 
we  get  more  butter  from  the  Jei-sey  milk  than  any  other  breed. 
The  Jereey  cow  loves  to  be  petted,  and  whatever  kindness  is  shown 
her  she  gratefully  returns  in  the  paD;  if  used  harshly  there  will  be  a 
great  reduction  in  the  quantities  of  milk  and  butter.  She  will  milk 
the  year  round — at  least  that  is  my  experience  with  them.  I  usually 
milk  them  within  a  month  of  the  time  of  calving,  which  is  of  great 
value  to  those  who  have  contracts  to  sujiply  private  families  with 
butter  the  year  around.  I  thus  get  a  steady  sujiply  from  these 
Jerseys,  while  other  breeds  do  not  hold  to  their  milV  so  long,  with. 
the  exeejstion,  perhaps,  of  the  Ayrshires.  For  the  purjiose  of  stall 
feeding  or  soiling,  they  are  just  the  cow  that  is  wanted.  Their  calves 
ai-e  easily  raised.  In  the  last  five  years  I  have  not  lost  over  two  per 
cent.  Their  bull  calves,  if  not  suited  for  breeding  purjjoses,  although 
they  do  not  make  so  much  weight  as  other  breeds,  when  they  are  sis 
or  eight  weeks  old,  make  the  best  of  veal.  I  have  had  calves  that 
weighed,  when  two  months  old,  200  poimds,  which  brought  eleven 
cents  jjer  jiound  when  sold  for  veal.  The  Jei-sey  cow,  "  Eui-otas,'' 
produced  in  eleven  months  778  pounds  of  butter,  which  sold  for  fifty 
cents  a  pound  at  the  Fifth  Avenue  Hotel,  New  Tork.  The  Jersey 
cow,  Mary  Ann  of  St.  Lambert's,  9,770,  belonging  to  Mr.  Yalancey  E. 
Fuller,  Hamilton,  Canada,  was  tested  for  thirty-one  days,  May  29th 
to  June  28th  (1883)  inclusive,  with  the  following  results: 

Mnji.        CKE-Mt.  BrTTER,         BrTTSB. 

LBS.  OZ.      1.BS.   OZ.      T.BS   OZ.        I3&  OZ. 

1st  week. 291.0  74.9  22. 8^  23.15 

2d  week 276.0  74.5  22.10  23.15 

3d  week 242.8  72.2  22.11^  24.0* 

4th  week 259.8  90.0  23.3  24.13 

2  days. 69.  22.12  6.7*  6.11 

Total  for  30 days 97. si         103. 6^ 

Iday '..       35.8         10.15  3.3i  3.6 

Total  for  31  days 100. 12         106. 12^ 


Jersey  Cattle. 


149 


150  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

The  following  appeared  in  the  Breeder' g  Gazette,  July  5th,  1883: 

B.u-TiMoKE,  Md.,  June  28th,  1883. 
John  O.  Clark,  Eitq.,  Pi-esident  Maryland  Breedera'  A><!<ocialwn  : 

Sir:  In  comphance  with  the  request  contained  in  your  letter 
of  the  13th  ultimo,  that  we  should  assist  in  making  a  seven  days"  test 
of  the  Jersey  cow,  Value  '2d,  6, 844,  owned  by  Messrs.  Watts  k  Seth, 
of  Baltimore,  Md.,  we,  the  undersigned,  would  report  as  follows: 
That  from  Tuesday,  the  10th  of  June,  to  Monday,  June  25th,  the 
jiroduct  was  327  pounds  of  milk,  fi'om  which  twenty-five  pouuds, 
two  and  eleven-twelfths  ounces  of  butter  were  produced. 

Signed,  T.  Alex.  Seth, 

W.  H.  -West, 

A.    M.    FtLFORD, 

Committee. 

This  is  the  lai'gest  amount  of  butter  from  one  cow,  of  any  breed, 
that  we  have  any  authentic  record  of  in  this  country.  To  further 
show  what  is  done  by  a  variety  of  cows  of  the  Jersey  breed  we  give 
the  followiag,  taken  from  the  Breeder's  Gazette  of  July  5th,  1883: 

COWS  THAT  HAVE  MADE  FOURTEEN  POUNDS  AND  OVER  PER  WEEK. 

Eurotas,  2,454 22.07 

Bomba,  10,330 21 .  11 J 

Valma  Hoti'man,  4,500 21 .  00 

Pheadra,  2,561 19.14 

Oak  Leaf,  4,7G9 17.10 

Gold  Thread,  4,945 17.09 

Mamie  Cobiu-n,  3,798 17.08 

"Welma,  5,942 17.08 

Lass  Edith,  6.290 17.00 

Eflie  of  HiUsdale,  1,521 16. 15 

Lida  Muhn,  9,198 16.08 

Lady  Nina,  4,338 16.04 

Lily  of  Maple  Grove,  5,i.79 16.03 

Grey  Therese,  5,322 16 .  00 

Myra  2d,  6,289 16.00 

Lady  Penn,  5,314 16.00 

Pride  of  Corissande,  5,323 16 .  00 

Emma  Gans(m,  (!,283 16 .  00 

Canto,  7,194 15. 12 

Lcrna,  3,634 15.12 


Records  of  Jersey  Cows.  151 


COWS  THAT   HAVE   MADE  FOURTEEN  POUNDS   AND  OVER   PER 
WEKK.-{Continued.) 

Myrtle  3d,  3,490 15. 12 

Niva,  7,523 15.08 

Nymphea,  5,114 15.08 

Zalrna,  8,788 15.05 

Crust,  1,775 15 .  00 

Ideal,  11,842 14. 12^ 

Maple  Leaf,  4,768 14. 12 

EstreUa,  2,831 14. 12 

Hartwick  Belle,  7,722 14. 08 

BeUe  of  UwcUand,  8,468 14.07 

Marpetra,  10,284 14.06 

Forsaken,  7,520 14 .  OSJ 

Silver  Sides,  3,857 14.03 

Gilt  4th,  4,208 14.00 

Canary  Bird  2d,  4,204 14.00 

GUt  Edge  2d,  4,420 14.00 

Sasco  BeUe,  13,601 14 .  00 

Bessie  Bradford,  11,544 14. 00 

Spring  Leaf,  5,79G 14 .  00 

Silver  BeU,  4,313 14.00 

A  total  of  forty  head. 

These  are  records  of  extraordinary  yields  of  butter,  made  by  -Jersey 
cows,  under  favorable  conditions,  and  are  above  what  can  be  expected 
fi-om  a  general  herd  dming  the  entire  yeai-.  The  record  of  my  own 
herd  of  thii-ty  cows,  which  I  here  submit,  is  far  below  any  above 
given,  but  I  flatter  myself  it  will  compare  favorably  with  the  j-ield  of 
any  herd  for  the  same  length  of  time,  the  extraordinary  cases  of 
special  feeding  or  special  animals  being  usually  given  for  a  day,  a 
week  or  a  month,  and  not  for  the  year  from  the  fidl  herd.  The 
record  is  for  a  herd  of  thirty  cows  for  one  year,  commencing  1st  of 
Januaiy,  1879: 

POUNDS. 

January 693 

February g35 

^larch 1^031 

(Here  I  sold  off  three  cows.) 


152  How  THK  Farm  Pays. 

April 848 

May 836 

June 735 

July 1,030 

August 748 

September 834 

October 847 

November 747 

December 575 

Butter  sold $4,823 .  50 

Calves  sold 4.711 .  00 


EXPEX.SES. 

Rent  40  acres $500. GO 

Pasture 200.00 

Cost  of  labor 800. 00 

Salt  for  daily  and  cows 26 .  00 

Expressage  on  butter 75 .  00 

Use  of  dairA'  fixtures 50 .  00 

Interest  on  value  of  stock 600 .  00 

$2,251.00 


Net  profits  on  liutter  alone $2,572 .  50 

Value  of  calves  sold 4,711 .  00 

Total  profits  of  the  dairy  alone $7,283 .  50 


I  might  say,  in  explanation  of  the  seemingly  small  amoimt  allowed 
for  labor,  that  the  work  of  the  dairy  was  performed  by  my  family  of 
two  daughters,  and  the  cai-e  and  feeding  of  the  cattle  was  aided  by 
my  own  labor  and  superintendence,  which,  if  it  had  been  hired,  would 
probably  have  cost  $1,000  more.  The  quantity  of  butter  is  taken 
from  my  account  book;  the  expenses  ai'e  estimated  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible, but  ai'e  certainly  not  underestimated.  No  estimate  is  made  for 
jiurchased  food,  as  the  value  of  the  skimmed  mOk  fed  to  pigs  will 
auii)ly  ofl'set  that. 

Q.  According  to  this  statement  you  show  a  profit,  for  a  herd  of 
thu-ty  cows,  to  be  over  $7,000.  As  much  of  that  is  due  to  the  high 
price  received  for  the  calves,  and  also  to  the  high  price,  fifty  cents  a 
pound,  received  for  the  butter,  what  would  be  the  probable  profits 
derived  from  an  ordinary  working  dauy  ? 

A.  In  any  common  working  dairy  it  is  easily  possible  to  make  such  a 
quaUty  of  butter  as  will  sell  for  fifty  cents  a  pound,  if  the  proper  care  is 


Guernsey  Cattle.  153 

taken  in  feeding  and  caring  for  the  cows,  and  in  managing  the  milk 
and  the  butter.  It  is  only  j)Oor  butter  that  is  hard  to  sell;  the  highest 
quality  is  scarce,  and  there  is  a  demand  for  more  than  is  produced. 
Hence  the  profits  on  the  butter  fi-om  an  ordinary  dairj',  stocked  with 
good  grade  Jerseys  or  AjTshires,  should  be  as  much,  or  very  nearly 
as  much,  as  from  this  herd.  As  regai'ds  the  calves,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  their  high  jirice  is  due  to  the  large  amount  of  capital 
invested  in  the  cows.  With  cows  of  less  value,  the  profits  from  the 
calves  will  of  coui'se  be  reduced  in  jDropoition.  In  other  parts  of  this 
book  we  have  tried  to  show  the  advantage  of  cultivating  five  acres 
"well  over  twenty-five  acres  in  a  slipshod  manner.  Here  too  we  would 
say,  in  choosing  the  cows  for  the  dauy,  it  is  better  to  have  the  best 
that  can  be  procured,  rather  than  waste  good  work  and  good  feed 
upon  inferior  stock. 

GUERNSEY   CATTLE. 

The  Guernsey  cow  is  larger  than  the  Jersey,  and  is  considered  by 
some  as  equally  profitable,  her  butter  being  as  excellent  in  texture 
and  flavor,  and  commanding  as  high  a  price  in  our  cities.  In  my  expe- 
rience the  Guernsey  is  in  no  way  superior  to  the  Jersey,  nor  do  I  think 
she  is  equal  to  the  Jersey.  I  kept  Guernseys  for  six  or  seven  years, 
and  they,  like  the  Short  Horns  and  Ayrshires,  were  sold  to  make  room 
for  Jerseys.  I  found  they  consumed  more  food  than  the  Jerseys, 
which  of  course  tends  to  reduce  their  value.  These  cattle  come  fi-om 
an  island  near  to,  and  in  the  same  grouj),  as  the  island  of  Jersey,  and 
have  been  bred  with  much  care.  They  are  yellowish  and  reddish  in 
color,  with  white  intermixed,  and  are  much  Uked  by  some  jiersons  who 
have  tried  them.  Being  larger  bodied  and  stouter  than  the  Jerseys, 
they  make  veiy  fair  beef  when  fatted,  and  when  crossed  upon 
common  cows  produce  very  good  dairy  cattle. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  drawn  of  late  to  Guernsey  cattle 
"by  the  importations  made  by  L.  W.  Ledyard,  Esq.,  of  Fernwood 
Farm,  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.  Mr.  Ledyard  has  made  several  visits  to  the 
island  of  Guernsey,  and  has  selected  his  stock  with  much  judgment. 
The  foUowing  records  go  to  show  that  ^Mr.  Ledy;u-d  made  a  fortunate 
selection,  and  that  his  best  Guernseys  are  not  suii^assed  in  quantity 
and  quality  of  butter  product,  except  by  a  few  of  the  best  of  the 
Jerseys.  The  cow,  Countess  of  Fernwood,  of  which  a  portrait  is  here 
given,  has  the  foUowing  record  for  seven  days,  ending  November  28th, 
1883,  vh.:  303^  poimds  of  mOk  and  eighteen  pounds,  fifteen  ounces 
of  butter,  equal  to  a  pound  of  butter  fi-om  sixteen  pounds,  or  a  httle 
more  than  seven  quarts,  of  milk.  In  the  week  ending  December  11th, 
1883,  Countess  of  Feruwood's  product  was  nineteen  pounds,  one  ounce. 


154 


How    THE    FaIUI    P.\YS. 


Of  his  herd  !Mr.  Ledyai'il  savs:  ' '  I  have  another  cow  that  vrill  run  over 
fifteen  pounds  in  a  -week,  and  my  impression  is  that  the  Guernseys 
■wiU  show  as  large  tests  as  any  other  breed,  and  in  time  are  quite 
likely  to  show  phenomenal  results,  although  I  do  not  give  these  the 
importance  usually  accorded  them."' 

Of  Countess  of  Fernwood  he  states,  that  her  milk  set  uutU  sour,  and  iill 
chvuTicd  has  showii  three  pounds,  tlu'ee  ounces  per  day  of  unsalted 
butter,  a  product  very  nearly  equalling  that  of  the  highest  yet  at- 
tained, and  this  v\4thout  forcing,  by  which  large  products  have  been 
made  from  noted  cows,  with  fatal  results  in  some  eases. 

Of  other  Guernsej'  cows  in  this  herd  the  foUo'n'ing  records  we 
given: 

TEST  OF  IMPORTED  GLT:RNSEY  COW,    'LADY  MAY,"   NO.   531. 


BATS  OF  MILKniG. 

MILK. 

DATE  OF  CmrHNISG. 

BUTTKB, 

Dec.  11th,  1883. 
Dec.  12th,     '• 
Dec.  13th,     " 
Deo.  14th,     " 
Dec.  15th,     " 
Dec.  16th,     " 
Dec.  17th,     " 

34J  lbs. 
35i    " 
33i    " 
35|    " 
33  i    " 
33|    " 
33i    " 

Dec.  14th. 
Dee.  15th. 
Dec.  16th. 
Dec.  17th. 
Dec.  18th. 
Dec.  19th. 
Dec.  20th. 

2  lbs.,  7i  oz. 
2   "      8     " 
2   "      8J  " 
2    "      8     " 

2  "      5     " 

3  " 

3   "      1     " 

7  even  days. 

239  lbs. 

18  lbs.,    6  oz. 

Weather  very  variable,  mercury  falhng  suddenly  below  zero;  she 
unfortunately  took  a  little  cold  in  her  iidder,  which  made  it  prudent 
to  cut  down  her  feed  (which  was  not  heavy),  just  as  she  was  doing 
her  fuU  work.     The  butter  was  dry  and  not  salted. 


TEST  OF  "POLLY  OF  FERNWOOD,''  NO.  1,5G5,  IMPORTED  IN  SEPT.,  1883. 


DATE  OF  Mn.KINO. 

MIUI. 

DATE  OF  OHTIKKISO. 

BDTTKB,  DBY,  NOT  SALTED. 

Dec.  18th,  1883. 

30    lbs. 

Dec.  21st. 

2  lbs. 

12    oz. 

Dec.  19th,     " 

30}    " 

Dec.  22d. 

2    " 

8J   " 

Doc.  20th,     " 

31f   " 

Dec.  23d. 

.S    " 

Dec.  21st,     " 

32 1    " 

Dec.  24th. 

2    " 

14     " 

Dec.  22d,      " 

28J   " 

Dec.  26th. 

2    " 

4     " 

Dec.  23d,      " 

•SOi   " 

Dec.  27th. 

2   " 

12     " 

Dec.  24th,     " 

'2H    " 

Dec.  28th. 

2    " 

15     •' 

7  even  days. 

213  lbs. 

19  lbs. 

li  oz. 

Records  of  Guerxsey  Cows. 


155 


Weather  Yeiy  vaiiable  and  tiying,  mercuiy  once  eighteen  below 
zero,  and  heavy  gales. 


JIILiaNG  RECORD  OF  FERNWOOD  GUERNSEY  HERD,  DECEMBER  28TH, 
1883,   WEATHER  VARYING  AND  VERY   COLD. 

11         Home  bred  and  acclimated  cows. 
1         Two-year-old  heifer. 
8         Heifers  with  first  calf,  just  out  of  C[uarantine  after  a 

very  hai'd  voyage. 
5         Cows  in  same  condition. 


25 


In  all. 


Average  lime  since  calving  two  months  and  twenty-five  days;  the 
heifers  had  calved  in  the  fall ;  some  of  the  older  cows  in  milk  a  long 
time.     Average  weight  of  milk  for  an  even  twenty-four  hours,  seven- 


GUEBNSEY  COW, 


teen  pounds,  ten  ounces.  The  milk  of  two  or  three  went  to  their 
calves;  that  of  two  weighing  twenty  povmds,  twelve  ounces,  and 
twenty-one  pounds  were  j)ut  in  a  creamery  for  heifer  tests;  the 
remainder,  393  pounds,  was  set  ten  hours  in  a  large,  open,  deep  pan, 
and  the  cream  made  Januarj'  1st,  ISS-l,  twenty-two  pounds  o-f  hard 
butter,  so  yellow  as  to  need  no  color,  the  latter  never  being  used  on 


15G  How  THE  Farm  Pavs. 

the  farm.  Tliis  is  a  pound  from  seventeen  pounds,  twelve  ounces  of 
milk,  when  the  cream  was  not  fully  extracted.  The  sweet  milk  was 
left  fully  equal  to  ordinary  normal  milk.  This  system  has  since  been 
changed  to  using  two  open  pans  of  the  same  kind,  one  holding  the 
milk  fifteen  and  the  other  twenty-two  hours;  this  gets  the  most  high 
flavored  cream  for  butter,  and  leaves  a  very  rich  milk  for  calves. 

The  thirteen  newly  imported  Guernseys  in  the  above  list  ^sassed 
through  the  storm  of  August  '2i)th,  and  were  so  hardly  used  by  the 
rough  sea  that  three  fine  cows  died  from  injuiies;  all  these  were,  and 
still  are,  thin. 

This  is  a  record,  not  of  selected  animals,  but  of  every  milking  cow 
on  the  farm. 

ALDERNEY   C.\TTLE. 

Although  the  cattle  known  by  the  name  of  Alderney  are  not  of 
themselves  of  any  importance  to  us,  yet  it  maybe  well  to  notice  them 
liere,  if  only  for  the  puri^ose  of  removing  the  quite  common  imjn-es- 
sion  that  this  name  relates  as  a  synonym  to  the  Jersey  cattle. 
.Vlderney  is  the  third  of  the  Channel  Islands  in  size,  and  is  but  a 
very  insignificant  spot,  not  much  larger  than  a  fair  sized  American 
farm,  and  smaller  than  some.  But  it  possesses  a  race  of  cattle  that 
were  known  as  the  Alderneys  before  the  Jerseys  were  ever  heard  of. 
Forty  or  fifty  years  ago  Alderneys  were  in  demand  in  England  for 
gentlemen's  parks  as  ornamental  animals,  just  as  fawns  and  deer 
were  tamed  and  kept  in  such  places.  These  small,  graceful  cows 
furnished  a  small  quantity  of  rich  mUk  for  the  table,  as  well  as  made 
a  pretty  picture  upon  the  lawn.  As  this  class  of  cattle  came  into 
repute,  Jersey  was  drawn  upon  for  a  supply,  but  the  name  Alderney 
was  still  retained,  until  the  exportation  from  Jersey  increased  very 
much,  and  the  Jersey  cattle  became  improved  in  character,  so  as  to 
make  profitable  stock  for  farms.  The  two  races  are  entii-ely  distinct, 
although  they  have  some  points  in  common,  such  as  the  gi-aceful 
form,  the  fawn  colors  and  their  rich  mUk.  But  the  Alderneys  are 
smaller  than  the  Jerseys,  less  numerous  by  far,  and  generally  spotted 
white  and  fawn  in  color,  while  the  Jerseys  vary  very  much  in 
their  colors. 

AYRSniRE   CATTLE. 

The  Ayrshire  cow  is  probably  most  valuable  for  the  special  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  cheese.  In  Edinburgh,  Glasgow  and  other  large 
cities  of  Scotland  fresh  millc  brings  six  cents  per  quart,  and  skimmed 
milk  and   buttermilk  hidf  that  price.     In  that  climate   there  is  no 


Ayrshire  Cows. 


157 


cow  that  does  better,  as  tliey  have  produced  as  high  as  forty  quai'ts  of 
milk  per  day.  They  are  very  hardy  and  active  in  seeking  their  own 
provender.  They  mature  early.  The  bullocks  or  steers  make  the  very 
best  of  work  cattle,  and  when  slaughtered  their  beef  is  of  average 
quality,  but  not  equal  to  that  of  the  Short  Horns  or  Herefords.  la 
the  United  States  the  Ayrshire  cow  fills  a  large  place,  being,  from 


ATRSHIEE  < 


her  great  milking  qualities,  valuable  for  mUk  dairies  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  our  large  cities.  They  will  give  as  high  as  7, 000  pounds  of 
milk  per  year.  The  butter  is  rather  pale,  and  to  bring  an  average 
price  must  be  colored.  They  are  of  hardy  constitution,  breeding 
from  two  years  old  until  twenty.  They  are  in  demand  for  the  hills 
of  Maine,  Connecticut,  New  Hampshu'e  and  Pennsylvania,  as  they 
seem  to  thrive  and  do  better  in  those  sections  than  any  other  breed. 


HOLSTEIN  CATTLE. 


The  Holsteins,  too,  have  their  advocates,  and  within  the  last  fewj'ears 
hundi'eds  have  been  imported  into  this  country,  with  the  expectation 
that  they  will  be  suitable,  from  their  great  milking  qualities,  for 
some  sections,  particularly  for  the  western  country,  to  supply  the 
numerous  cheese  factories  that  have  been  started  there  recently.  Thej' 
are  of  enormous  size,  and  consume  a  large  amount  of  feed;  but  they 
produce  large  quantities  of  milk,  which  is  sold  to  these  cheese  fac- 
tories for  about  two  cents  per  quart.     Some  claims  are  made  for  them 


158 


How  THE  Faioi  Pays. 


as  butter  cows;  but  they  excel  for  the  production  of  cheese,  and  in  those 
sections  of  the  country  where  feed  is  plentiful,  they  vrill  no  doubt 
prove  to  be  very  valuable.     They  are    a  very  handsome  breed,  pure 


IIOLSTEIN  COW. 


"black  and  white  in  color,  and  are  much  fancied  on  this  account.  This 
breed  is  claimed  to  make  good  beef.  As  to  this  I  am  unable  to  say, 
as  I  have  had  uo  experience  with  them  for  that  pui-pose. 


DEVON  C.\TTLE. 

Tlie  Devon  cow  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  all  improved  breeds.  In 
districts  suitable  for  them  the  Devoiis  wiU  ^'ive  a  lai'ge  yield  of  mUk, 
and  it  is  of  excellent  quahty.  It  is  believed  to  produce  more  and 
better  butter  than  almost  any  other  breed  excejit  the  Jerseys  or 
Gueraseys.  They  are  easily  kept  and  are  of  gentle  disposition.  They 
are  well  suited  for  the  rough  hiUs  of  New  England  or  the  mountains 
of  Pennsylvania,  where  they  aie  also  much  used  as  working  oxen, 
and  prefeiTed  for  that  purpose  above  all  other  cattle.  On  new  lands, 
or  lands  that  are  rough,  they  make  the  best  team  for  plowing.  They 
are  easily  trained  and  very  inteUigent,  and  I  think  superior  for  that 
purpose  to  any  oUier  breed.  In  Devonshire,  England,  it  is  claimed 
that  when  stall  fed,  this  breed  makes  better  beef  than  any  other,  and 
they  have  often  earned  off  pi-izes  at  the  Christmas  shows  when 
exhibited  as  beef  cattle.  Tlieir  long  boms  are  a  serious  objection  to 
them  with  Western  cattle  men,  as  being  in  the  way  of  shipping  them 
in  the  cars;  but  for  farm  gi-azing  and  feeding  for  beef  they  have  some 
valuable  points. 


Scotch  Fullzd  Cattle.  159 


SCOTCH   POLLED  CATTLE. 

This  class  of  cattle  includes  the  Galloway,  and  the  Angus,  or  Aber- 
deen, breeds.  Thev  have  been  recently  introduced  from  Scotland 
into  this  country.  They  are  a  beef  animal,  the  cows  having  little 
reputation,  even  in  Scotland,  as  milkers.  They  are  of  large  size, 
black  in  color,  of  compact  form  and  hornless.  They  are  exceedingly 
easy  keepers,  mature  early,  and  the  beef  is  said  to  be  of  excellent 
quality.  They  are,  perhaps,  better  suited  for  cold  climates  than  any 
other  breed.  For  this  reason  they  are  well  adapted  to  Canada,  or 
the  extreme  portions  of  our  Northern  States,  where  the  finer  breeds 
would  be  too  tender.     The  demand  for  them  in  the  West  seems  to  be 


SCOTCH  POLLED  COW. 


taking  the  place  of  the  Short  Horns,  and  they  are  rapidly  becoming 
popular  there,  on  accormt  of  the  absence  of  horns,  and  theii'  special 
advantages  and  value  for  "Western  grazing.  Eecent  single  importa- 
tions have  numbered  over  -400  head. 

There  is  another  class  of  polled  cattle  which  are  excellent  dairy 
stock.  These  are  the  PoUed  Norfolk.  These  are  deep  red  in  color, 
of  good  form,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  horns,  very  much  like 
the  Devons  in  appearance.  They  ai-e  fau-  dairy  cattle,  and,  like  aU 
hornless  cattle,  quiet  and  docile  in  disposition.  They  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  this  country,  and  are  meeting  with  con- 
siderable favor  with  fanners  who  object  to  horns  upon  theu-  cattle. 


160  How  THE  Fakm  Pavs. 


HEREFORD   CATTLE. 

The  Herefords  are  the  standai-d  beef  cattle  of  the  County  of  Here- 
ford, iu  Enfjland.  These,  and  the  Devons,  are  the  two  oldest  breeds 
of  domesticated  cattle  known  to  exist.  I  think  it  was  probably  fifty 
or  sixty  years  ago  that  this  breed  was  first  introduced  into  tliia 
country,  and  there  is  hardly  a  section  throughout  New  England, 
New  York  or  Pennsylvania  but  you  will  find  the  mai-k  of  the  Here- 
fords among  theii-  herds.  They  have  been  bred  so  long,  that  where 
the  buUs  have  been  used  among  oui'  native  cows  their  jn'ogeny  is 
marked  with  about  the  same  color.  All  Herefords,  \N-ithout  excep- 
tion, have  white  faces;  a  brown,  or  dull  red  color,  on  the  body,  with 
a  white  stripe  on  the  back;  are  compactly  built,  and  have  veiy  little 
offal  when  they  come  to  the  shambles.  In  the  past  few  yeai-s  they 
have  compared  favorably  with  the  Short  Homs,  weight  for  weight, 
in  the  carcass;  but  their  beef  is  more  valuable,  as  there  is  less  waste 
ii  it,  being  mixed,  with  the  fat  evenly  distributed  thi-oughout  the 
carcass     When  crossed  with  our  native  cows  their  progeny  make 


HEREFORD  UU 


useful  animals  for  the  mUkman  or  dairyman,  or  for  the  farmer  for 
gi'azing  or  stall  feeding.  As  working  oxen  the  steers  ai-e  found  to  be 
remarkably  gentle  and  docile,  but  slower  than  the  Devons.  For  a 
few  years  past  tliey  have  been  extensively  introduced  into  the  West 
for  stall  feeding  and  gi-azing  on  the  plains.  They  have  become  very 
popular  there,  since  they  have  taken  several  fii-st  premiums  at  the  fat 
cattle  exhibitions. 


Short  Horn  Cattle. 


161 


SHORT  HORN  CATTLE. 

Tins  excellent  breed  of  cattle,  wliich  used  to  stand  first  in  the 
estimation  of  breeders  in  America,  seems  to  have  lost  rani,  and  to  be 
meeting  ■with  very  close  competition  from  the  Hereford  and  the 
Scotch  Polled  cattle,  which  are  rapidly  taking  their  jDlace  in  the 
West.  A  few  years  ago  there  was  an  enormous  speculation  in  this 
breed  of  cattle,  and  $30, 600  was  actually  paid  for  one  single  cow ;  but 
to-day  the  average  price  for  a  good  pure  bred  Short  Horn  cow  is 


SHORT  HORN  COW. 


about  $200.  It  is  claimed  for  them  that  there  are  families  of  good 
milkers  in  the  breed,  but,  as  far  my  experience  goes,  it  takes  two 
cows  or  mothers  to  raise  one  calf.  I  saw  Dutchess  75th  when  in  this 
country,  and  again  at  Lord  Dunmore's  in  Scotland,  when  she  was 
being  jirepared  for  the  Christmas  show  of  fat  cattle.  She  had  all  the 
turnips,  oil  cake,  peas  and  beans  she  could  eat,  and  grew  to  such  an 
enormous  weight  that,  while  standing  up,  she  had  to  be  put  in  slings, 
lest  her  limbs  would  give  out;  but  after  aU  this  feeding  and  care,  a 
Polled  Angus  cow  led  at  nearly  all  the  Christmas  shows  of  beef  cattle 
in  London,  the  Herefonls  coming  in  second.  I  saw  once  a  new 
importation  of  Short  Horns,  where  the  dams  of  the  calves  could  not 
feed  them,  and  Ayrshii-es  were  imported  at  the  same  time  to  supply 
this  want.  Originally  the  Short  Horns  were  the  best  of  dairy  cattle, 
and  were  valued  on  that  account  as  much  as  for  beef.     That  they 


162  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

have  so  fallen  oflf  in  the  daiiy  by  being  bred  solely  for  beef,  and  have 
fallen  oflf  as  beef  cattle  by  being  bred  too  much  for  fat,  shovrs  how  a 
splendid  race  of  cattle  may  be  destroyed  by  mismanagement.  One 
family  only  of  this  breed,  kuo^\Ti  as  the  Princess  family,  have  now  a 
reputation  for  milk  and  butter,  although  occasionally  a  few  individual 
cows  are  found  to  be  good  milkers  and  butter  makers.  Some  of  the 
grade  Short  Horns  are  excellent  dairy  cows.  Short  Horns  are  not 
much  used  for  oxen.  They  mature,  when  fed  on  rich  feed,  at  an 
early  age,  but  their  beef  is  much  better  in  quality  at  tive  or  six  yeai-s 
old,  when  Ihey  will  dress  fi-om  1,400  to  1,500  pounds.     The  Texas 


FAX  SHOBX  HOBX  HEIFEB. 


COWS  have  been  much  improved  by  the  use  of  Short  Horn  bulls,  and 
in  fact,  a  large  proportion  of  the  Western  cattle  now  show  the  Shorv 
Horn  cross,  which  has  much  improved  the  native  stock  of  the  "Western 
country. 

SWISS  CATTLE. 

The  Swiss  cows  I  think  a  great  acquisition  to  our  daii-y  stock. 
Switzerland  is  a  gi-and  daiiy  country,  and  some  of  the  Swiss  cows 
have  been  bred  with  great  care  for  many  yeai's.  Some  importations 
were  made  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  progeny  of  these,  which  have 
been  kept  pure,  have  been  scattered  considerably  through  New 
England,  Pennsylvania  and  some  other  localities.  There  are  several 
good  sized  herds  and  qmte  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  which  are 
gi-aduaUy  enlarging,  and  I  think  these  cattle  will  soon  be  heard  of 
more  than  they  are  now.  They  are  something  like  the  Ayi'shire  in 
form,  but  lai'ger  and  heavier,  of  a  yellow  and  red  color  spotted  with 
white;  are   naturaUj  quiet  and  docile   and  heavj-  milkers;  some  of 


Points  of  the  Jersey  Cow.  163 

them  are  said  to  yield  two  pounds  and  over  of  butter  per  daj'.  It  is 
claimed  that  one  cow  has  given  over  600  pounds  in  a  year  and  3,000 
pounds  in  six  years,  all  of  which  has  sold  for  more  than  $1,500.  Then- 
native  coimtry  is  f  uU  of  mountains  and  valleys,  and  consequently  these 
cattle  are  haxdy  and  active,  and  suitable  to  the  rougher  parts  of  this 
country. 

TEXAS  CATTLE. 

The  cattle  of  Texas  and  Florida  are  the  descendants  of  the  stock 
brought  over  from  Spain  by  the  early  settlers  of  the  Gulf  regions. 
They  are  of  no  interest  to  the  farmer  of  the  Northern,  Eastern  or 
Middle  States,  and  seem  only  to  be  fitted  for  a  place  on  the  Texan 
and  other  Western  praii-ies,  where  they  are  still  the  leading  breed 
used  for  beef  purposes,  but  in  all  probability  they  are  destined  to  be- 
come the  basis  for  a  greatly  improved  race  of  useful  cattle,  through 
crossing  by  the  Short  Horns,  Herefords  or  other  improved  breeds. 

The  foUowing  are  the  distinctive  "j)oints"  of  the  leading  breeds: 

JERSEY  COW. 

Purity  of  Breed. — A  rej)utation  for  producing  rich,  yellow  butter 
by  the  ancestors  of  both  parents. 

Head. — Small,  fine  and  tapering. 

Eye.  — FuU  and  lively. 

Face. — Lean,  muzzle  often  encii'cled  with  buff  color,  dished. 

Horns. — Crumi^led,  short  and  fine. 

Ears. — SmaU  and  orange  colored  within. 

Neck. — Slender  and  tapering  to  the  head. 

Back. — Straight  from  withers  to  setting  on  of  tail. 

CJieat. — Deep  and  nearly  on  the  line  with  the  belly. 

Hide. — Thin,  movable,  but  not  too  loose,  well  covered  with  soft  hair 
and  yellow  in  color. 

Barrel. — Hooped  and  deep,  well  ribbed,  vsdth  little  space  between 
the  ribs  and  hips. 

Tail. — Long  and  thin. 

Legs. — Forelegs  straight  and  fine;  thighs  full  and  long,  close  to- 
gether when  viewed  from  behind;  hind  legs  short,  bones  fine,  hocks 
small,  not  crossed  in  walking. 

Color. — Creamy  fawn,  deeper  fawn  and  squirrel  gray,  with  white, 
occasionally,  in  patches. 

Udder. — Well  up  behind;  teats  large  and  squarely  placed,  wide 
apart;  good  fore  teats,  with  large  milk  veins  running  well  foi-ward; 
free  from  coarse  hair. 

Disposition. — Docile. 


164  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


AYRSHIRE  COW. 


Breed. — As  in  tlie  Jersey,  purity  of  l)reed  iu  both  sii-e  aud  dam. 

Head. — Rather  long  and  naiTOw. 

Eye. — Not  as  full  as  the  Jersey,  i:)lacid,  and  not  stiilcingly  large. 

Face. — Small;  muzzle  and  nose  variable  in  color. 

Ear. — Small  and  fine ;  orange  colored  within. 

Hurnn. — Tapeiing,  -with  an  upwai-d  and  outward  turn,  and  set 
wide  apart. 

Neck. — Medium  length,  clean  in  the  throat  and  tapering  to  the 
head. 

Chest. — "Wide  and  round,  the  "  wedge  shape  "  of  the  animal,  fi-om 
the  hind  quarter  forward,  ai'isiug  more  from  a  thin,  fiat  shoulder, 
than  fi'om  any  undue  narrowness  of  chest. 

Back. — Straight;  loins  wide;  hips  high. 

Hide. — Soft  and  mellow,  with  soft  and  thick  hair;  woolly  and  mossy 
underneath. 

Barrel. — Deep  and  round. 

Tail. — Long  and  slim,  and  set  well  into  the  back. 

Legs. — Delicate  and  line  in  the  bone,  and  well  knit  together  at  the 
joints. 

Udder. — In  this  breed  is  most  important,  as  the  Ayrshii-es  have 
been  bred  almost  exclusively  with  reference  to  their  niiUdug  quaUties. 
Should  be  cajiacious  but  not  fleshy,  broad  and  square  in  front  and 
show  large  behind;  the  teats  should  stand  well  apart,  and  be  long, 
but  not  coai'se. 

Color. — Dai'k  red,  rich  brown  or  mahogany,  nmniug  into  almost  a 
black ;  sometimes  broken,  blotched  and  spotted  with  white. 

Disposition. — Gentle  and  quiet. 


IIOLi^TEIN  row. 


Breed. — Purity  of  pedigi-ee  on  both  sides. 

Head. — Small  and  long. 

J?i/e.— Full 

Face. — Long  and  lean. 

Horns. — Medium  length,  with  upward  tm-n. 

Ears. — Large  and  yellow  within. 

Xeck. — SHm. 

£ac/t.— Sti-aight. 


Points  or  the  Devox  Cow.  165 

Chest. — Deep. 
Hide. — Thin  and  soft. 
Barrel. — Eound  and  full. 
Tail. — Medium  length. 

Legs. — Fore  legs  short;  hind  legs  long  and  slender. 
Color. — Black  and  Trhite  alwaj's;    sometimes  white  stripe   across 
middle  of  back. 

Udder. — Large  both  rear  and  front. 
Disposition. — Gentle;  easy  to  handle. 

DEVON  COW. 

Breed.  — Pvuit j  on  both  sides. 

Head. — Small,  lean  and  bon}\ 

Face. — Straight;  muzzle  fine;  nostrils  open. 

Eije. — Prominent  and  clear;  mUd  and  gentle  in  its  expression. 

-Ear.— Thin ;  medium  size. 

Horns. — Light,  tapering,  with  waxy  color  towai'd  extremity. 

Neck. — Medium  lengih;  clean  and  well  set  upon  the  shoulders. 

Back. — Loins  and  hijis  broad,  and  niuning  on  a  line  with  setting 
■of  tail. 

Chest. — Deep  and  round,  caiiying  its  fullness  well  back  of  the 
elbow,  aifording  abundant  internal  room  for  the  action  of  the  heart 
and  lungs. 

Hide. — Soft  and  mellow,  but  not  too  fine,  and  covered  with  short, 
thick  and  fine  hair. 

Barrel. — Round  and  straight;  ribs  almost  circular,  and  extending 
well  back  and  spiinging  nearly  hoiizontally  fi'om  the  vertebrfe,  giving 
great  cajjacity. 

Tail. — At  its  junction  level  with  the  back;  long;  very  slender  in  its 
cord,  and  finishing  with  a  tassel  of  white  hah*. 

Legs. — Not  too  short,  and  standing  straight  and  square  behind;  bone 
small,  sinews  large  and  clean. 

Color. — Deep  red,  always  growing  lighter  around  the  muzzle. 

Udder.  — Should  be  capacious,  free  from  long  hail'. 

Disposition. — Gentle. 

HEREFORD  COW. 

Breed. — As  in  all  cases,  purity  in  sire  and  dam. 
Head. — Moderately  small,  with  a  good  width  of  forehead,  tapering 
to  the  muzzle. 
Face.— ^yhite. 


166  How  THK  Farm  Pays. 

Eye, — Very  small  and  cheerful  in  expression. 

Hornit. — Long  and  rather  coarse,  with  outward  and  generally  down- 
ward turn. 

Neck: — Medium  length  and  tapering  finely  to  the  head. 

Back.  — Loin  and  liips  should  be  broad  and  level. 

Chest. — Broad,  round  and  deep,  running  well  back,  with  springing 
fore  rib,  gi\'ing  great  interior  capacity. 

Hide. — Soft  and  loose,  covered  with  long  silky  hair. 

Barrel. — Round,  reaches  close  up  to  hind-quarters. 

Tail. — Large  and  full  at  its  jioint  of  attachment,  but  fine  in  its  cord. 

Ijegs.  — Sti-aight,  upright  and  firmly  placed,  and  well  apart. 

Color. — Red  or  rich  brown,  sometimes  darker,  white  on  brisket 
and  along  tlie  back. 

Udder. — Broad,  full,  extending  forward  and  well  uji  behind. 

Disposition. — Cheerful  and  hvely. 

SHORT  HORN  OR  DURHAM  COW. 

Breed. — Should  show  unbroken  descent  on  both  sides  from  knowik 
animals  entered  in  English  herd  book. 

Head. — Small,  lean  and  bony,  tapeiing  to  the  muzzle. 

Fojce. — Somewhat  long,  the  fleshy  portion  of  the  nose  of  deUcate 
color. 

Eye. — Prominent,  bright  and  clear. 

Horns. — Short,  light  in  substance,  waxy  in  color  and  evenly  set  on 
the  head. 

Ears. — Large  and  thin. 

Neck. — Rather  short  than  long,  and  tapering  to  the  head;  clean  in 
the  thi-oat  and  fuU  at  the  base. 

Back. — Loin  aud  hips  should  be  broad,  forming  a  straight  and  even 
line  from  the  neck  to  setting  on  of  tail,  full  behind  the  slioulder. 

Cliest. — Broad,  deep,  round  and  fuU  back  of  the  elbows. 

Hide. — Soft  under  the  touch,  with  soft  mossy  hail-. 

Tail. — Flat  and  broad  at  its  root,  but  fine  in  its  cord,  aud  placed 
high  up  on  the  rump. 

Leg!'. — Short,  straight  and  standing  square  with  the  body. 

Udder. — Should  reach  well  forward,  roomy  behind,  and  teats  wide 
apart  and  of  good  size. 

DL-iposition. — Gentle. 

In  all  breeds  the  points  of  the  buU  should  as  nearly  resemble  those 
of  the  cow  as  it  is  possible  for  the  male  to  resemble  the  femiUe,  and 
especially  so  when  uulk  or  butter  is  the  object. 


Daikv  Cows.  167 


THE  BEST  COW  FOR  THE  DAIRY. 


Q.  Judging  from  the  expressions  of  opinion  advanced  by  you,  Mr. 
Crozier,  from  your  personal  experience,  and  from  the  data  that  we 
have  been  able  to  gather  on  this  important  subject,  as  to  what  is  the 
most  profitable  breed  of  cattle  for  dairy  jJurpo^^s,  particularly  for 
butter  and  cream,  the  conclusion  to  be  arrived  at  is  that  the  Jersey 
cow,  as  she  stands  to-day,  is  the  breed  par  excellence.  But  may  not 
fashion  in  this  case,  as  in  other  things,  have  had  something  to  do  in 
giving  the  Jerseys  so  much  prominence '? 

A.  In  my  experience  with  the  dili'erent  breeds  of  cattle,  I  find  none 
that  wiU.  produce  as  much  cream  and  butter  in  365  days,  and  breed 
at  the  same  time,  as  the  Jersey  cow — that  is,  if  she  is  j)roperly  treated 
and  taken  care  of.  I  have  no  doubt  that  if  the  Jersey  cow  has  to 
rough  it,  that  there  are  other  breeds  of  coarser  textui'e  that  would  be 
found  better  adajjted  for  taking  care  of  themselves;  but  with  jJroper 
care  the  Jersey,  in  my  opinion,  is  by  aU  odds  the  best  breed  we  have 
for  the  production  of  cream  and  butter. 

Q.  But,  as  you  know,  there  are  compai-atively  few  Jersey  cows  in 
the  country,  and,  on  account  of  their  scarcity,  are  valued  very  highly, 
and  are  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  the  great  mass  of  farmers,  who 
could  not  ijossibly  stock  their  farms  with  Jersey  cattle.  What,  then, 
would  you  recommend  to  a  fai'mer  as  the  best  dairy  cow  for  general 
use — first  for  milk,  next  for  butter? 

A.  That  question  opens  ujd  a  wide  subject,  because  it  not  only  in- 
cludes the  selection  of  the  cow,  but  the  breeding  and  crossing  of 
varieties,  as  well  as  the  improvement  of  the  native  cows  by  the  use  of 
pxu'e  bred  bulls.  I  will,  therefore,  give  my  ideas  as  fully  as  may  be 
necessary  on  this  very  important  cjuestion.  As  you  saj-,  there  ai'e  not 
enough  Jersey  cows,  nor,  indeed,  A^Tshii'es,  or  any  other  jJure  breed, 
to  go  around  among  our  five  million  farmers.  There  are  jjrobably 
40,000  Jersey  cows  only  in  the  country,  and  perhajjs  half  as  many 
pure  A^Tshu-es;  and  about  4,000  Holsteias.  Devons,  PoUs,  Herefoids 
and  Short  Horns,  I  do  not  count  as  dati'y  cows.  There  are,  jserliaps,  a 
few  hundred  Swiss  cows.  AU  these  are  in  the  hands  of  fanners  who 
can  afford  to  pay  large  prices  for  them.  The  great  bulk  of  the  dairy 
products  of  the  country  is  fi'oni  the  native  cows,  made  up  of  mixtures 
of  Short  Horns,  Devons,  Herefords  and  AjTshii-es,  which  have  been 
brought  here  by  the  first  settlers  and  have  been  crossed  and  recrossed 
for  200  years  until  the  traces  of  the  original  jjarents  have  been  wholly 
lost,  and  we  have  a  mixed  sort  which  we  call  native.     There  is  the 


168  How  THE  Fahm  Pays. 

best  of  blood  at  the  bottom,  aud  I  believe  tbe  common  native  cows 
ai-e  susceptible  of  very  pi-eat  improvement  if  the  same  care  should  be 
given  to  them  as  has  been  given  to  what  we  call  the  pure  breeds. 
Duiin'T  twenty  yeai's,  or  more,  past,  there  has  been  a  considerable 
mixtui'e  of  Jersey  and  Ayi-shire  blood  among  the  native  stock,  and 
ti-aces  of  it  ai-e  seen  in  almost  every  part  of  the  countiy,  more  or  less. 
So  that  the  native  cattle,  as  they  are  called,  have  a  foundation  upon 
which,  by  cai-eful  breeding,  an  excellent  herd  may  be  built  up.  And, 
in  reply  to  yoiu-  question,  I  should  say,  first,  that  a  well  selected  herd 
of  native  cattle.  8ho^\-ing  a  large  trace  of  Ayrshire  or  Short  Horn 
blood,  would  make  the  best  cows  for  an  ordinary  working  milk  dairy. 
Next  to  these  I  would  place  cattle  showing  traces  of  Devon  blood. 
And  third,  for  the  common  butter  dairy,  I  would  select  a  herd  of 
natives,  having  Jersey  blood  in  them,  of  the  best  kind  I  could  find, 
and  then  procure  a  good  Jersey  bull  to  im2)rove  them  with.  No 
farmer  need  complain  or  feel  envious  because  he  has  not  the  means 
to  puirhase  a  herd  of  pure  bred  registered  Jerseys.  He  can  very 
easilv  procui-e  a  bull  of  first  rate  famUy  record  for  butter  production 
to  improve  his  native  stock  with,  aud  in  a  few  years  would  possess  a 
herd  in  all  respects  as  good  for  yield  of  butter  as  a  herd  of  piu'e  bred 
cows. 

The  cost  would  be  very  soon  repaid.  If  a  farmer  even  boiTOwed 
$1,000  for  the  pui'chase  of  a  two-year-old  bull  of  good  pedigree,  he 
would  get  the  money  back  again  very  quickly  from  a  herd  of  twenty- 
five  cows  only.  This  is  easily  seen.  The  first  yeai-  he  would  have 
twelve  heifer  calves  and  twelve  the  second  year;  the  third  year  there 
would  be  eighteen  heifer  calves  and  twelve  young  half-bred  cows. 
These  young  cows,  with  this  breeding,  would  alone  be  worth  all  the 
buU  cost,  which  would  be  only  about  $<S0  each.  The  fourth  year 
there  would  be  thirty  young  cows,  easUy  worth  $2,300,  because  no  one 
who  had  them  would  sell  them  for  that  price.  At  the  end  of  the 
fifth  yeai"  the  increase  of  the  herd  would  number  100  cows,  and  if 
each  one  was  worth  only  $10  more  than  a  common  cow,  the  bull 
would  have  been  paid  for.  But  after  the  third  cross  some  of  the 
cows,  perhaps  half  of  them,  would  produce  butter  enough  to  pay  a 
good  interest  on  $200  each.  I  think  this  answers  your  question  as  to 
the  best  cow  for  the  dairy  for  the  working  farmer  who  is  unable  to 
procure  the  costly  jiure  bred  Jersey  cows. 

Several  cases  have  come  to  my  knowledge  in  which  farmers  have 
bought  a  well  bred  Jersey  bull  for  $300  or  more  and  crossed  it  upon 
then"  native  cows,  with  the  result,  that  in  less  than  five  years  the 
extra  product  of  butter,  at  thirty  cents  a  pound,  fi-om  the  half  and 
thi-ee-quarter  bred  cows,  has  alone,  every  yeai-,  repaid  the  whole  cost 


]\Ianagemext  of  Dairy  Cows.  169 

of  the  bull  in  a  herd  of  twenty  cows  and  upwards.  And  the  same  re- 
sult has  been  reached  by  using  pui'e  bred  Ayrshire  and  Holstein 
cows  in  milk  dames  and  cheese  dairies. 


FEED   AND  C.4.RE    OF  COWS   FOR  MILK   AND   BUTTER. 

Q.  You  have  given  the  results  of  the  profit  derived  fi'om  your 
dauy  product.  Will  jon  now  state  your  mode  of  feeding  and  caring 
for  milch  cows,  that  give  these  results  during  the  entire  season,  be- 
ginning at  the  1st  of  January  ?  Toiu-  answer  may,  in  some  respects, 
repeat  information  you  have  ah-eady  given;  but  as  the  subject  is  all- 
important,  and  should  be  given  in  a  consecutive  manner,  I  think 
our  readers  will  pardon  any  sUght  repetition  in  this  matter. 

A.  As  I  have  before  stated,  I  was  formerly  a  great  believer  in 
steamed  feed  for  milch  cows;  but  latterly  I  have  changed  to  cutting 
corn  stalks,  hay  or  "oats  and  j^eas,"  and  mixing  this  cut  feed  with 
bran,  ground  oats,  pulped  or  crushed  mangels  and  salt.  Turnijjs  I 
do  not  feed  to  milch  cows,  as  they  would  flavor  the  butter,  unless 
great  care  were  used  to  feed  the  turnips  immediatelj'  after  the  cows 
have  been  milked;  and,  as  we  find  this  would  entail  special  trouble, 
we  think  it  better  not  to  feed  tmiiips  at  all,  as  mangels  answer  every 
j)urpose.  Besides,  mangels  give  a  heavier  weight  of  crop  fi'om  the 
ground.  If,  however,  turnips,  or  any  other  food,  has  b?en  used,  that 
taints  the  cream,  it  will  be  neutralized  to  some  extent  by  putting  in  a 
teaspoonful  of  saltpetre  to  every  twenty  quaiis  of  milk. 

I  very  often  feed  some  ground  cotton  seed  cake  meal,  as  it  enriches 
the  mUk,  instead  of,  as  formerlj',  feeding  oil  cake  or  hnseed  meal. 
The  cotton  seed  meal  is  ground  fine,  and  fed  at  the  rate  of  two  to 
four  quarts  per  day.  If  the  cow  has  gone  a  period  of  five  or  six 
months  with  calf,  I  reduce  it  to  one  quart.  The  regular  feed — that 
is,  the  mixture  of  cut  fodder,  mangels,  meal,  etc. — is  mixed  in  the 
barn,  enough  being  cut  to  last  a  week  at  a  time.  About  a  bushel 
basketful  is  fed  to  each  animal,  morning  and  evening,  and  a  little 
hay  given  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  after  the  cows  have  been  watered. 
If  the  weather  is  very  cold  at  that  season  I  feed  a  little  heavier,  and 
sometimes  mix  a  little  hot  water  with  it.  The  di-inking  water  given 
to  the  cows  should  be  shghtly  warmed,  so  as  to  make  it  as  near  blood 
heat  as  possible.  This  method  of  feeding  is  continued  until  the 
middle  of  May  in  this  climate.  If  the  cows  are  coming  into  calving  I 
avoid  feeding  ground  oats,  by  which  I  think  I  keep  them  in  better 
condition.  I  also  generally  give  them  a  few  smaU  doses  of  salts  and 
sulphur  just  before  calving  time.     About  the  middle  of  May  green 


170  How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 

rye  is  ready  to  cut;  this  is  run  through  the  machine  and  mixed  with 
the  feed  akeady  named,  which  is  tlie  first  process  of  soiUng,  being' 
fed  in  small  quantities  at  first,  so  as  to  gradually  accustom  them  to 
the  summer  soiUng.  The  rye  is  fed  until  clover  comes  in,  which  is 
followed  by  "  oats  and  peas, "  lucern  and  fodder  corn,  lasting  into 
November,  when  the  feeding  with  dry  fodder  and  roots  is  again  begun. 
In  feeding  diy  cows,  I  find  it  very  profitable  to  cut  up  wheat  straw 
and  mix  it  with  crushed  turnips,  giving  about  sixty  pounds  of  turnips 
and  twenty  pounds  of  straw  per  day  to  two-year-old  animals.  The 
bulls  are  fed  exactly  as  the  milch  cows.  In  addition  to  the  matter  of 
feed  in  the  winter  treatment,  we  consider  it  to  be  of  the  first  import- 
ance to  have  the  animals  thoroughly  curried  and  brushed,  and  the 
pores  of  the  skin  kept  open.  This  is  done  every  morning  with  each 
animal,  and  an  abundance  of  clean  straw  is  daily  supplied  for  bedding. 
By  this  manner  of  hberal  feeding,  warm  shelter  and  beds  in  winter, 
absolute  cleanliness  and  careful  watchfulness,  I  attribute  not  only 
exemption  from  abortion,  milk  fever  and  other  similar  troubles  of  the 
stock  raiser,  but  have  a  certainty,  from  the  products  of  the  dairy,  that 
the  work  is  remunerated  by  a  balance  on  the  right  side  of  the  ledger. 


YOUNG  C.\TTLE. 

Q.  You  have  said  nothing  as  yet,  Jlr.  Crozier,  of  youi"  manner  of 
raising  young  stock.  From  the  specimens  I  now  see  in  your  barns  I 
would  like  to  know  the  method  by  which  you  have  raised  them  to 
such  perfection.  For  it  would  certainly  give  great  jjleasure  if  every 
one  interested  in  stock  raising  could  see  that  herd  of  deer-like 
Jerseys,  and  I  am  persuaded  that  they  would  be  convinced,  as  I  am, 
that  you  practice  as  well,  and  I  think  a  little  better,  than  you  i^reach. 

A.  I  consider  the  primary  reason  for  my  success  in  raising  young' 
cattle  to  be,  that  the  mothers  lu-e  kept  in  the  verj-^  best  possible 
condition  of  hesUth.  This  condition  of  health  I  beUeve  is  produced  and 
continued  only  by  the  systematic  method  of  feeding  and  care  that  has 
been  here  described  and  which  I  have  practiced  for  years.  Proljablj-  our 
mode  of  winter  feeding  has  more  to  do  with  this  than  aiiythiug  else. 
During  the  five  years  I  have  2)ractieed  this  system,  I  have  had  suflfi- 
cient  evidence  to  prove  that  a  higher  degree  of  health  and  vigor  is  ini- 
})ai-ted  to  the  animals  than  can  be  hoped  for  when  the  process  of  steaming 
the  feed  is  followed.  I  had  as  fair  success  with  the  cows  and  calves 
when  using  the  steamed  feed  as  I  could  well  expect,  but  since  I  have 
changed  to  my  present  system  all  the  stock  are  more  ■vigorous  and 
healthier  than  ever  before.     WliUe  using  the  steamed  feed  we  found 


Rearing  of  Calais.  171 

that  the  average  of  milk  during  the  twelve  months  was  perhaps  more 
than  it  is  now,  but  IbeUeve  it  stimulated  the  cows  too  much,  and  the 
effect  was  seen  in  the  calves,  which  were  not  so  strong  and  were  more 
difficult  to  raise. 

"When  the  calf  is  dropped,  our  method  is  to  take  it  at  once  from 
the  cow  and  nib  it  dry  wdth  straw  or  a  cloth.  Many  farmers  think 
it  necessary  for  the  good  of  the  cow  that  she  should  Hck  the  calf  di-y. 
I  do  not  think  so.  It  is  the  natural  way,  no  doubt,  but  a  cow  is  a 
domesticated  animal  and  we  can  do  this  work  for  her  better  than 
she  can,  and  it  is  more  cleanly.  The  calf  is  then  taken  to  a  box  stall 
where  it  can  be  kept  quiet  and  out  of  hearing  of  the  cow.  The  milk  is 
taken  from  the  cow  and  given  to  the  calf,  it  being  necessary  for  a  few 
times  to  give  it  the  finger  to  suck,  but  it  can  very  soon  be  taught  to 
drink  from  the  i^aH  without  tliis  assistance.  After  about  nine  daj'S 
the  milk  from  the  cow  is  changed  to  skimmed  milk,  which  is  mixed 
with  oatmeal  and  gi-ound  flaxseed,  boiled  in  water  to  a  thin  gruel, 
and  a  Httle  salt ;  when  this  is  added  to  the  milk  it  will  be  about  blood 
heai  My  plan  of  taking  the  calf  from  the  cow  as  soon  as  it  is 
dropped  is,  I  know,  in  opposition  to  the  usual  method,  which  allows 
the  calf  to  suck  its  dam  for  a  few  days.  But  where  this  is  done  the 
change  of  taking  the  calf  away  injures  both  it  and  the  dam.  She  gets 
acquainted  with  it,  and  when  you  take  it  away  she  becomes  restless, 
and  gets  into  a  fever;  and  the  same  wdth  the  calf,  looking  for  her 
mother.  In  addition  to  this,  my  plan  of  removing  the  calf  at  once 
trains  the  calf,  so  that  when  she  becomes  a  cow  she  never  looks  for 
the  calf,  and  does  not  fret  and  worry  over  it.  This  is  quite  important 
in  a  dairy.  If  the  cow's  udder  becomes  inflamed,  we  bathe  it  in  hot 
water,  as  hot  as  the  hand  will  bear,  using  a  soft  sponge,  and  after- 
wards taking  a  j)ortion  of  the  cow's  milk  and  rubbing  it  gently,  care 
being  taken  to  dry  off  all  milk  clean  from  the  udder,  that  none  should 
be  left  to  curd.  This  artificial  means  we  believe  to  be  safer  and 
better  than  if  the  calf  were  allowed  to  nui'se  on  the  cow,  as  when  it 
does  not  get  milk  fi-eely  fi-om  the  cow,  it  will  punch  with  its  head  so 
hard  as  to  often  ruin  the  cow  for  hfe.  This,  I  believe,  is  the  cause 
of  so  manj'  quarters  of  the  udder  being  lost.  No  use  is  ever  made 
of  the  milk  of  the  cow  for  the  first  nine  days,  excejit  to  feed  the  calf. 

The  calves  are  fed  twice  a  day,  about  seven  in  the  morning  and  the 
same  hour  at  night.  While  young,  great  care  is  taken  not  to  over- 
feed them,  which  will  cause  indigestion  and  this  stoiDS  the  gi-owth  of 
the  calf  at  once.  It  also  causes  diarrhcea,  which  is  the  most  fatal 
disease  among  young  calves.  Three  quarts  of  milk  is  enough  for  one 
meal  for  a  young  calf,  at  first.  The  feed  is  gradually  increased  up  to 
four  quarts  at  a  meal  and  the  calf  should  not  be  jDermitted  to  drink 


172  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

too  fast.  A  little  care  in  tliese  respects  wiU  ensure  healthy  calves. 
After  a  month,  a  httle  oatraejil  and  linseed  meal  may  be  given  once 
a  day,  not  more  than  an  ounce  to  be^au  with,  if  it  is  not  given  with 
the  milk;  and  some  fine  hay  may  also  be  supplied,  of  which  the  calf 
Tvill  soon  be!.riii  to  eat.  The  feed  is  carefully  increased  by  degrees 
\ip  to  six  or  eight  months.  At  this  age  some  Jersey  calves  will  breed 
and  the  sexes  should  be  separated  to  prevent  this.  When  putting 
calves  to  pasture,  care  is  rc'(juired  to  avoid  gorging  -with  wet  grass, 
or  chilling  after  overheating,  by  which  that  common,  and  always 
fatal,  disease,  "blackleg,"  may  be  caused.  About  May  the  yearUugs 
ai"e  turned  into  a  grass  lot  or  paddock  near  to  the  barns,  and  ai'e 
given  a  mash  of  bran,  made  into  a  drink,  once  a  day.  They  ai-e 
"brought  into  the  bai'ns  at  night,  and  tied  up  and  fed  the  same  feed 
as  that  given  to  the  cows,  in  due  proportion.  They  are  cai-ded  and 
brushed  and  treated  generally  the  same  as  the  cows,  being  handled  all 
over,  so  that  when  they  come  to  be  cows  they  are  docile,  and  need  no 
training,  or  ' '  breaking  in,''  as  it  is  called.  Only  the  cow  calves  are  thus 
reai'ed.  Only  those  bidl  calves  ai'o  reared  which  are  from  the  best  milkei's; 
these  are  always  reserved  for  breeding  purposes.  It  is  our  aim  to  im- 
prove the  butter  qusility  and  quantity  by  this  means,  as  certainly  "like 
wiU  beget  like,"'  and,  if  not  at  first,  it  always  will  at  some  time ;  and  it  is 
my  opinion  that  this  is  the  gi'eat  point  in  breeding,  for  the  reason 
that  one  bull  will  get  fifty  calves  while  a  cow  is  producing  one.  I 
paid,  in  18G5,  for  a  Jersey  bull  not  two  years  old,  $1,000,  and  my 
neighbors  thought  at  that  time  I  should  have  been  put  into  an 
asylum,  such  a  price  for  a  Jersey  never  having  been  heard  of;  but  it 
was  tlie  best  investment  I  have  ever  made,  as  the  produce  proved  to 
be  of  the  highest  standard. 

Q.  As  you  are  thus  ijaiticulai-  in  breeding,  I  presume  you  do  not  rear 
every  calf  that  is  dropped,  as  some  may  turn  out  to  be  inferior.  What 
are  the  distinguishing  points  of  the  most  promising  calves? 

A.  When  a  calf  is  dropped  an  expert  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether 
it  is  likely  to  be  a  good  cow  or  not.  There  are  many  points  wliich 
altogether  go  to  make  up  the  general  appearance,  which  strikes  him 
at  once.  The  head  and  neck  are  the  most  imjiortant  of  these;  the 
head  should  be  thin, long  and  fine;  the  ears  fine  and  free  from  coarse 
hair;  the  eyes  large;  the  face  broad  across  the  ej-es;  the  neck  is  slender 
and  tapers  finely  to  the  head;  the  hair  is  fhie  and  silky;  the  legs  fine 
and  deer-like ;  but  the  udder  marks  are  perhaps  the  most  convincing 
along  with  all  these.  If  the  teats  are  well  formed  and  are  placed  well 
apart  and  the  skin  of  the  future  udder  is  loose,  tlien  the  calf  will  have 
every  promise  of  a  good  cow,  and  this  i)romise  rarely  fails.  On  the 
contraiy,  a  coarse,  rough-haired  calf  with  little  apparent  udder  form- 


Feeding  Calves.  273 

ation,  will  be  apt  to  turn  out  a  poor  cow.  This  judgment  ofcom-se 
comes  by  practice,  but  a  close  study  of  these  points  will  rarely  fail  to 
lead  to  an  accurate  selection.  All  calves  that  do  not  come  up  to  a 
proper  standai-d,  in  this  way,  are  at  once  destroyed,  or  vealed. 

Q.  Do  you  attach  any  importance  to  the  so- called  "  escutcheon,"  as 
a  mark  of  value 

A.  As  the  escutcheon,  so-caUed,  is  considered  by  many  persons  to 
be  of  special  importance,  I  have  studied  it  very  closely,  but  without 
discovering  anything  in  it  to  form  a  judgment  upon,  excepting,  jser- 
haps,  in  this  vf&y,  and  to  a  limited  extent,  quality  and  character  and 
marks  are  generally  inherited  together.  If  a  calf  has  all  the  marks 
of  her  dam  and  sire,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  will  inherit, 
with  these  marks,  aU  the  qualities  and  character  as  well.  The 
escutcheon  is  one  of  these  marks,  just  as  the  tine  eye  and  face  and 
slender  tail  and  silky  hair  are,  and  will  go  just  as  far  as  one  of 
these  may  go,  and  no  farther.  But  I  have  been  led  to  believe  that  if 
any  person  places  all  his  rehance  upon  the  escutcheon  he  will  impose 
upon  himself  and  cherish  a  delusion. 

But,  to  retui-n  to  our  subject-:  my  way  of  feeding  is  to  rear  the 
young  animal  up,  never  permitting  it  to  run  into  fat;  as  once  an 
animal  is  run  into  fat  it  has  a  tendency  that  way,  and  in  the  dairy  we 
want  mUk  and  butter,  and  not  fat  in  the  carcass.  The  object  in 
feeding  skimmed  milk  is  to  be  free  from  the  butter  or  fat-formin«^ 
substance,  and  we  give  larger  quantities  of  the  skimmed  milk  as  soon 
as  the  young  animal  can  digest  it,  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the 
paimch,  so  that  when  grown  to  matui-ity  they  will  consume  and  digest 
so  much  more  feed,  and  hence  produce  larger  quantities  of  milk;  as 
a  cow  giving  large  quantities  of  milk  requires  a  large  amount  of  feed 
to  supjDly  it,  and  should  have  capacity  to  hold  and  digest  a  larger 
quantity.  I  had  a  Jersey  calf  which,  at  the  age  of  five  months, 
milked  two  quarts  of  good  milk  p>er  day,  and  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen 
months,  when  she  was  put  to  the  buU,  increased  to  foiu-  quarts  per 
day.  She  is  still  in  my  possession,  and  has  given  me  two  calves,  and 
has  never  been  dry  during  the  period  of  gestation.  This  was  an 
unusual  case,  and  was  caused  by  the  constant  sucking  of  its  com- 
panions. It  shows,  however,  the  natural  inclination  of  this  breed  to 
milk  production. 

Q.  Had  it  any  weakening  tendencj-  on  the  animal  ? 

A.  No;  I  think  not.  This  animal  was  in  such  a  vigorous  condition 
that  it  rather  gave  her  a  finer  development  than  if  she  had  not  "iven 
milk  until  she  came  in  at  two  yeai's  old.  She  is  now  four-  years  old 
and  caiTying  her  third  calf,  and  I  cannot  obsei-ve  that  she  is  in  any 
way  injured  by  it. 


174  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

Q.  You  say  the  heifers  are  ready  to  breed  at  al>out  fifteen  months. 
Is  it  not  an  unusual  thiuf^  to  bring  them  in  at  that  age? 

A.  In  my  experience  in  breeding  Jerseys  and  A^Tshires,  hy  bring- 
ing tlicm  into  milk  -while  young,  I  find  that  they  make  better  cows,  as  it 
keeps  them  from  ninning  into  fat  or  beef,  and  holds  their  milking 
qualities  much  better.  I  have  known  Jersey  and  Ayrshire  heifers 
not  to  breed  until  twenty-eight  and  thirty  months  old,  but  they  never 
proved  to  be  good  dairy  cows,  while  Short  Horns  or  Devons  ought 
not  to  be  bred  until  about  two  years  old,  because  their  uses  nowa- 
days are  more  for  beef  than  for  dairy  jiurijoses.  My  plan  is  to  breed 
the  Jerseys  and  Ayrshu'es  while  young,  and  on  their  second  breeding 
to  keep  them  back  say  three  or  four  months,  so  as  to  make  them  hold 
out  their  milking  qualities  for  a  longer  season. 

Q.  "What  is  the  highest  price,  to  your  knowledge,  that  has  ever  been 
jiaid  for  a  Jersey  ? 

A.  Ibelieve  $10,000  each  has  been  oft'ered  and  refused  for  "Eurotas," 
"Bomba,"  and  "Jersey  Belle  of  Scituate."  The  two-yeai'-old  heifer, 
Khedive  Princess,  sold  at  the  Cooper  sale.  May,  1883,  for  $5,1.50. 
Some  twenty  cows  at  the  same  sale  averaged  over  $2,000  each, 
while  the  young  buU,  King  of  Ashantee,  sold  for  $5,600.  Since  then 
!i  bull  calf  sold  for  $10,500.* 

Q.  What  is  the  probabUity  of  a  continuance  of  these  high  prices, 
Mr.  Crozier?  Are  they  occasioned  by  a  craze  of  fashion,  or  is  there 
an  increase  of  f)opular  demand  for  the  Jerseys? 

A.  There  is  no  doubt  an  increasing  demand  for  Jersey  cattle — a 
legitimate  demand  founded  entirely  on  their  great  merits,  which 
yeai-ly  are  becoming  more  and  more  attested,  and  that,  together  wth 
the  great  beautj'  of  the  animal,  which  brings  into  competition  jjrivatc 
gentlemen  as  pui'chasers,  both  at  the  auction  sales  and  privately,  will 
have  the  eflect  of  keeping  up  2:)resent  jjrices,  until  this  demand  is 
satisfied.  At  the  present  time  I  do  not  believe  there  is  a  Jersey  cow 
for  each  county  in  the  United  States,  and  the  number  being  thus 
limited,  certain!}'  the  demand  wUl  continue.  Fifteen  years  ago  $250 
or  $300  would  have  been  called  an  extravagant  price  for  a  Jersey  cow 
and  few  buyers  at  that. 

Q.  The  inference  is,  then,  that  as  the  character  of  this  breed  becomes 
known  the  price  advances? 

A.  "Wherever  the  Jersey  cow  jilants  her  foot,  there  yviH  soon  be 
found  a  market  for  her,  whether  here  in  the  East  or  in  the  South  or 
the  "West.  A  few  years  ago  she  was  slighted  at  our  fairs  by  everj-- 
body,  and  called  the   "  little  scrag "  and   only  considered  fitted  for 

•  Sinco  tlie  above  was  wrilteu  a  two-vear-old  bull  ha3  been  sold  by  T.  S.  Cooper 
for  $15,000. 


Effect  of  Crossing  varu  Jerseys.  175 

gentlemen's  la-tvns.  But  to-day  every  buyer  who  can  obtain  money  to 
purchase  a  calf  wants  it,  and  while,  but  a  few  yeai-s  ago,  the  highest 
price  paid  for  the  sei-vice  of  bulls  was  $5,  to-day  $250  is  paid  for  some 
buUs  and  even  as  high  as  $500  for  animals  of  special  families. 

Q.  The  cost  of  the  Jersey  to  the  average  farmer  in  anything  Uke  a 
fair  herd  would  of  course  be  beyond  his  means  at  the  jsresent  time, 
but  would  not  the  effect  of  a  cross  between  a  Jersey  bull  and  an 
Ayrshire  or  other  good  cow,  for  instance,  be  found  of  great  advan- 
tage? 

A.  I  have  known  a  great  many  instances  where  the  breeder  has 
crossed  the  Jersey  bull  and  Ayi'shire  cow  for  the  very  purpose  of  get- 
ting the  best  family  cows,  and  certainly  the  result  has  jjroved  to  be 
most  satisfactory.  Of  course  a  herd  in  this  way  would  cost  very 
much  less,  as  the  Ayrshire  cow  has  not  any  excessive  value. 

Q.  "What  are  the  relative  values  of  a  pure  Jersey  cow  and  a  pure 
Ayrshire  of  the  same  quality  ? 

A.  "While  the  Jersey  cow  of  pui'e  breed  and  pedigi'ee  would 
now  bring  $1,500,  the  Ayi'shire  would  biing  only  fi-om  $100  to  S150. 
I  paid  in  1876,  at  the  Highland  Society's  Exhibition,  $500  for  one, 
but  since  then  the  value  of  the  Ayrshii-e  has  had  a  downward  tend- 
ency, as  she  has  not  been  appreciated  by  wealthy  farmers  as  the  Jersey 
has  been,   and  so  has  not  so  high  a  market  value. 

Q.  "^Tiat  is  the  result  when  the  Jersey  is  crossed  with  our  common, 
or,  as  sometimes  called,  native,  cow  ? 

A.  I  think  it  was  in  1876  that  an  old  faiTuer,  upwards  of  seventy 
years  of  age,  brought  one  of  his  cows  to  one  of  my  Jersey  bulls.  The 
cow  brought  him  a  heifer  calf  which  he  raised  and  bred,  and  which 
in  turn  produced  a  calf  when  a  Uttle  over  two  years  old.  Nothing 
remarkable  was  thought  of  the  heifer  until  his  wife  (  who  had  a  life- 
time experience  in  butter  making)  stated  one  morning  that  she  had 
never  had  such  a  good  chiu-ning  of  butter  as  she  had  had  that  morn- 
ing. This  shaiiDeued  the  old  gentleman's  observation,  and  while 
turning  the  cows  into  the  yard  loose  to  be  milked,  as  is  the  custom 
among  our  faiTuers  here,  he  noticed  that  this  heifer  had  a  very  laige 
and  richly  colored  udder.  He  went  back  to  the  house,  and  told  the 
old  lady  that  he  guessed  there  must  be  something  in  Crozier's  stock 
after  all;  that  he  thought  the  cause  of  her  extraordinary  jield  of 
butter  was  in  that  heifer,  and  that  to  set  the  matter  at  rest  she  must 
begin  and  gather  a  week's  milk  by  itself  and  chm-n  it.  It  was  done, 
and  to  the  astonishment  of  the  old  gentleman,  he  had  more  butter 
fi-om  the  one  heifer  a  little  over  two  yeai's  old  than  he  had  fi'om  all  of  his 
other  thi-ee  cows  together.  On  the  same  day  he  came  to  my  place 
and  said  he  had  come  to  take  back  what  he  had  said  about  my  stock, 


176  How  THE  Fakji  Pays. 

ami  that  as  loug  as  be  lived  he  would  breed  to  no  other  bulls  but  the 
Jerseys.  He  uow  has  several  crosses  of  the  Jerseys  in  his  herd  and 
you  could  not  buy  them  for  $100  each.  I  had  an  order  fi'om  Te.\as 
asking'  if  I  could  procure  a  car  load  of  half  breeds  in  this  vicinity.  I 
tried  the  old  gentleman,  but  in  vain,  for  although  he  had  them  he 
would  not  part  with  them.  And  this,  which  is  by  no  means  an  excep- 
tional case,  tells  the  whole  story.  It  is  for  wide-awake  fannei's  to 
watch  the  changes  of  events  in  their  business  outside  of  tlieir  own 
fai'ms,  as  well  as  inside  of  them,  and  to  know  what  is  going  on 
ai'ound  them,  and  when  they  see  how  some  improvement  can  be  made 
to  seize  upon  it.  A  Jersey  buU,  at  a  cost  of  $200  or  $250,  would 
double  the  value  of  a  herd  of  fifty  cows  in  tkree  years,  at  a  cost  of  no 
more  than  $5  for  each  heifer  Ciilf  reai'ed.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  each 
of  these  young  cows  would  be  worth  $100  eac-h,  which  is  a  return  of 
$5,000  for  the  $250  in  three  yeai-s.  This  is  one  way  in  which  the  value 
of  the  Jersey  bi-eed  can  be  made  available  to  eveiy  farmer. 

THE   M.VXAGEMEXT  OF  THE   DAIRY. 

The  fii'st  gi'eat  cai-e  in  the  management  of  the  daily  is  cleanliness. 
If  the  cows  are  kept  in  a  filthy  state,  the  milk  wUl  certainly  become 
tainted  less  or  more,  and  this  taint  wiU  surely  affect  the  cream  and 
butter.  Therefore  I  use  every  precaution  to  keep  the  cows  clean  and 
the  stables  fi-ee  from  taint  or  bad  odors,  and  not  only  the  stables,  but 
the  surroundings.  Gii'ls  and  boys  make  the  best  milkers,  because 
theii"  hands  ai'e  small,  and  are  less  hable  to  hui-t  the  cows;  and  it 
won't  hui-t  any  gii-1  or  boy  to  know  how  to  milk,  for  if  it  is  never 
necessaiy  that  they  should  do  the  work,  they  should  always  be  able  to 
know  how  it  shoiild  be  done  and  when  it  is  well  done.  There  are 
many  ways  of  mUkiug.  Some  clasi)  the  teat  with  the  whole  hand  and 
squeeze  and  puU  at  the  same  time;  others  use  only  the  forefinger  and 
thumb,  with  a  sort  of  stripping  motion.  The  first  method  is  esiieciaUy 
objectionable  where  the  hand  is  lai'ge,  as  the  fingers  double  in  ai'ound 
the  teat,  and  there  is  danger  of  pinching  the  teat  Avith  the  finger 
uaUs.  Strip2)ing  should  rarely  be  practiced,  excejjtiag  in  cases  where 
the  teat  is  very  small,  or  as  a  rest  to  the  milker's  WTist,  occasionally. 
I  once  had  a  Swiss  in  my  employ  who,  in  milking,  doubled  up  his 
thumb  against  the  teat,  placing  his  fingers  ai-ound  it,  and  I  found  he 
was  much  the  easiest  and  best  milker  I  ever  had ;  and  since  then  I 
have  made  my  boys  learn  the  same  method.  This  way  of  milking  is 
bj'  far  the  best  for  men,  because  doubling  the  thumb  in  lessens  the 
capacity  of  the  hiuid,  and  the  fingers  reacliing  ai'ound  the  teat  lap  onto 
the  thumb,  and  thus  i)rotect  it  from  the  finger  nails.  In  milking 
with  the  whole  hand  the  teat  should  not  be  i^uUed  down,  Vmt  squeezed 


Milking  Cows.  177 

from  the  top  downwards,  so  as  to  force  out  the  milk.  The  finger 
nails  of  milkers  should  be  kept  cut  close.  Every  milker  should  wash 
and  dry  the  hands  before  he  begins,  and  no  one  should  ever  dip  his 
fingers  into  the  milk  to  moisten  the  teats.  The  milk  stool  should  be 
about  nine  inches  high  and  should  have  three  legs.  The  best  position 
for  the  milker  is  to  place  his  head  firmly  against  the  side  of  the  cow, 
between  her  thigh  and  flank,  throwing  cue  leg  slightly  behind  and 
the  other  in  front  of  her  hind  legs,  so  as  to  hold  the  pail  firmly 
between  the  knees.  In  case  the  milker  should  happen  to  get  hold  of 
a  kicking  cow,  this  position  will  enable  htm  to  brace  himself  so  as  to 
prevent  her  from  kicking  the  pail.  Sometimes,  however,  we  find 
vicious  kickers,  where  it  is  necessary  to  use  artificial  means  to  break 
them  of  the  habit.  In  such  cases  a  good  remedy  is  to  tie  a  strap — 
such  as  a  surcingle  of  a  horse — tightly  across  Ihe  cow's  back,  and 
under  her  beUy.  In  moving  her  leg  forward  to  kick,  the  cow  raises 
her  back  forward  of  the  hip  joint,  and  slightly  expands  the  belly,  and 
her  back  being  particularly  tender,  if  the  strap  is  drawn  tight,  it 
hurts  her  to  make  this  motion,  and  she  soon  desists.     A  very  common 


MTUONG  TUBE. 

practice  with  kicking  cows  is  to  tie  then-  hind  legs  together;  but  this 
should  never  be  done,  because  in  struggUng  to  get  loose  they  are  ajit 
to  throw  themselves.  The  strap  applied  in  the  manner  described 
win  be  found  effective. 

I  would  say  here  that  a  great  deal  may  be  done  to  make  cows  quiet 
milkers  and  prevent  them  from  kicking,  by  careful  and  gentle  man- 
agement when  a  heifer  first  comes  in.  A  yoimg  heifer,  newly  calved, 
has  generally  a  tender  udder,  and  when  it  is  full  of  milk,  the  act  of 
milking  is  painful  and  she  will  often  attempt  to  kick.  This  is  the 
critical  time  ;  if  she  is  beaten  she  will  kick  back,  and,  perhaps,  become 
a  confirmed  kicker  ;  but  if  gently  soothed  and  treated  with  patience 
and  kindness,  as  soon  as  the  udder  has  lost  its  tenderness,  she  wiU 
never  think  of  kicking. 

I  have  known  some  of  the  most  valuable  animals  to  be  rained  for 
life  in  breaking  them  fi-om  kicking.  It  is  then  that  the  previous  train- 
ing, before  mentioned,  is  found  to  be  of  the  greatest  advantage. 

Whipping  or  stiiking  with  the  stools  should  never  be  allowed,  as  it 
only  makes  them  worse.  When  cows  ai-e  annoyed  at  mUking  by  flies,  it 
saves  all  trouble  if  a  light  sheet  is  thrown  across  the  cow's  back  duinng 
the  operation.  In  the  case  of  sore  or  obstructed  teats  there  is  nothing 
I  have  foimd  to  give   such  quick  relief  as  a  silver  tube  made  for  that 


178 


How  THK  Fa  KM   Pays. 


purpose.  This  instiiiment  is  .simply  a  sUvcr  tube  one-sixteenth  of  an 
ineli  in  diameter  and  three  inches  lonp;,  and  perforated  near  the  toji 
as  shown  in  cut.  It  should  he  inserted  in  the  teats  and  passed  above 
the  obstruction.  The  smsill  shde  is  pushed  up  or  down  to  shorten  or 
lengthen  the  tube.     I  have  also  imported  a  milker  which  has  been 


cow    ATTT.KFn 


recommended  bv  the  best  daiiymon  in  Enp^land  and  Scotland. 
I  would  not  recommened  this  to  be  used  constantly,  but  vrhere  the 
teats  ai'e  sore  it  is  of  great  value.  ^MiLking  is  done  by  my  boys  and 
men.  Theu-  hands  must  be  washed  clean,  and  if  any  tilth  gathers  on 
the  udder  or  teats  of  the  cows,  they  ai-e  jilso  washed  and  wiped  di-y  with 
a  clean  towel.  The  milk  is  sti-ained  into  cans  twenty  inches  deeji  and 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  which  are  covered  and  cjuTied  immediately 
into  the  dau-y,  Avhere  the  mUk  is  strained  in  the  mnter  time 
into  a  creamery  which  contains  pans  five  feet  long  and  twenty  inches 
wide  and  about  seven  inches  deej),  thus  giving  a  liu'ge  siu'face  for  the 
cream.  In  cold  winter  weather  we  get  the  niUk  uj)  to  a  temperature 
of  sixty  degrees  by  the  simple  process  of  placing  a  tin  can  tilled 
with  boiUng  water  and  corked  tight,  iu  the  bottom  of  the  creamery, 
the  door  of  which  is  then  shut  Judgment  must  be  used  to  regulate 
the  quantity  of  hot  water,  so  as  to  keep  as  near  as  possible  to  the  desired 
temperatm-e  ;  it  will  require  neM-ly  douVile  the  quantity  of  hot  water 
to  raise  the  temperatm-e  of  the  milk  to  sixty,  when  the  theniiometer 
mai-ks  ten  helow  zero,  than  when  it  is  ten  aliove  it-  Over  tlie  milk 
or  at  the  ends  of  these  pans  arc  ventilators,  so  that  the  bad  air  can  pass 
off,  but  this  we  only  practice  for  a  few  months  iu  the  winter  time 
diuiug  the  coldest  weather.  The  remainder  of  the  yciU-  the  milk  is 
set  in  a  creamery  holding  six  cans  about  twenty-foiu-  inches  in  depth 
and  nine  inches  in  disuueter.  These  cans  ai-e  covered  with  lids  having 
chimneys  or  ventilators  in  the  toi3.     The  cans  ai-e  smTounded  by  cold 


Chtrsing. 


179 


spring  water,  wliicb  is  left  imtil  the  milk  is  cool.  Tlie  water  is  then 
{li-awn  oflE  ami  fresh  cold  water  and  broken  ice  put  in,  to  keep  the 
milk  down  to  as  neai-  forty-five  degrees  as  possible. 

Each  setting  is  allowed  to  stand  twelve  houi-s,  and  the  milk  is  then 
dra-n-n  oS  by  a  faucet  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  can,  leaving  the 
cream  inside.  The  milk,  being  sweet,  is  fed  to  the  calves  as  pre- 
viously stated.  A  little  salt  is  added  to  the  cream,  and  it  is  put  away 
in  a  cool  room,  where  it  remains  imtil  fully  ripe,  or  a  little  soui-,  and 
is  then  chmned,  being  at  a  temperatui-e  of  about  fifty-five  degrees. 
I  prefer  to  chum  the  cream  a  Httle  soured,  as  I  have  found  by 
different  trials  that  when  churned  sweet,  the  butter  is  not  so  good. 
The  churn  we  have  had  in  use  for  several  years  is  a  small  sized  factors- 
churn  of  the  Blanchard  make,  having  a  capacity  of  eighty  gallons  of 


cream.  The  chum  is  worked  by  pony  power,  and  the  churning 
usually  requires  about  fifty  minutes,  although  it  could  be  done  in  half 
that  time  if  hui-ried;  but  we  find  it  is  a  mistake  to  work  it  too  fast, 
as  the  butter  would  become  oily.  Before  the  churning  is  finished, 
two  pails  of  brine  made  of  salt  and  spring  water  (strong  enough  to 
float  an  egg)  ai-e  thrown  into  the  chum.  This  sei:)ai'ates  the  butter 
from  the  buttermilk,  and  leaves  it  in  kernels  about  the  size  of  wheat 
grains.  The  pony  revolves  the  churn  a  few  times;  then  the  buttenuilk 
is  drawn  oft',  and  either  sent  to  market  or  is  fed  to  the  hogs.  Several 
pails  of  water  are  then  poured  on  the  butter,  until  not  a  paiiicle  of 
buttermilk,  or  even  the  color  of  the  milk,  is  left  in  the  chm-n.     The 


180 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


chm-ning  now  being  done,  the  Reed  butter  worker,  which,  thus  far, 
I  find  to  be  the  best,  is  scalded  and  cooled  with  ice-water,  and  the 
butter  lifted  from  the  chmni  onto  it. 

About  one  ounce  of  Eui-eka  salt  to  the  pound  of  butter  is  sifted 
OTcr  the  whole  surface,  and  about  half  an  ounce  of  pulverized  sugar  to 
the  pound  added,  and  the  whole  thorouglily  worked  by  the  machine, 
about  fifteen  minutes  being  recjuii-ed  for  this  process.     The  butter  is 


REED  .S  BUTTER 


next  weighed  into  half-pound  cukes,  put  into  the  butter  press  and 
stamped ;  the  stamp  sho^\^ng  the  name  of  the  farm,  of  the  village,  and 
my  initials,  to  protect  it  in  the  mwket  from  imitations.  These  cakes 
ai-e  wrapped  in  fine  muslin,  jjut  into  the  butter  box,  which  is  enclosed 
in  a  wooden  box,  and  sent  direct  to  the  pui-chasers.  In  each  of  these 
outer  wooden  boxes  are  two  compaiiments  for  ice,  which  in  hot 
weather  keejis  the  butter  in  good  condition  until  it  reaches  its  des- 
tination. This  concludes  mv  system  of  butter  making,  and  I  may 
say  that  I  have  yet  to  hear  of  one  single  complaint,  although  I  have 
supplied  some  families  for  fifteen  yeai-s  without  missing  a  week. 


SkTTINO    INIlLK    FOR    CeK\JI. 


181 


Q.  I  notice  tliat  you  sa}-  that  the  temi^eratiue  of  the  luilk  iu  the 
summer  season  is  reduced  to  fortv-five  degi-ees,  while  in  the  winter 
season  it  is  kept  up  to  sixty.  ^Tij'  do  you  reduce  the  temperature 
in  the  summer  time  to  forty-five  ? 

A.  Because  at  this  temperatui-e  mUk  set  in  the  deep  pails  we  use 
will  thi'ow  up  all  the  cream  in  twelve  hours,  and  while  it  is  stiU  sweet; 
if  the  mUk  was  set  at  sixty  degi-ees  in  the  summer,  it  would  soiu'  be- 
fore aU  the  cream  had  risen.  We  also  get  the  cream  in  the  chum  at 
a  lower  temperature  than  we  otherwise  could  in  the  summer,  for  it  is 


BLANCHARD  BUTTER  WORKER. 


necessary  for  the  cream  to  go  iuto  the  cluu-n  iu  the  hot  weather  at 
no  more  than  fifty-five  degrees,  as  it  quickly  rises  to  sixty  or  sixty-two, 
which  is  the  right  temperature,  or  the  butter  would  be  too  soft,  un- 
less a  good  deal  of  ice  were  used,  and  too  much  ice  is  not  desirable. 
A  point  worth  mentioning,  too,  that  is  secured  by  setting  the  milk 
at  forty-fiive  degrees,  is  Ihat  we  get  the  skimmed  milk  sweet  for  the 
calves. 

Q.  Is  yoiu-  plan  of  mixing  half  an  ounce  of  sugar  for  each  pound 
of  butter  in  general  practice  ? 


182 


How  THli  Fahm  P.vys. 


A.  I  think  not;  but  it  impi-oves  the  butter,  for  certainly-  there  is  a 
waste  of  sugar  in  washing  out  the  buttermilk.  Yeiu-s  ago  my 
method  was  to  press  out  all  the  buttermilk  we  could  in  working  it, 
and  to  absorb  it  with  a  sponge  wi'apped  in  a  clean  cloth,  but  since  I 
have  adojited  the  plan  of  washing  out  the  buttciTuilk  I  replace  the 
sugar  in  this  way.    Besides  this,  the  sugai-  heljw  to  23resei"i'o  the  butter. 

Q.  "VMiat  is  your  opinion,  Mr.  Crozier,  of  the  new  Centi-ifugal 
Sepai'ator,  as  it  is  called  ? 

A.  I  think  it  was  in  1870  that  we  had  it  at  the  lutematioual  Dairy 
Fail',  in  New  York  City,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  for  those  who 
supjilj'  cream  to  oiu-  lai-ge  cities  it  is  a  very  good  machine,  but  where 
we  sour  the  cream  and  make  it  fit  for  churning,  I  do  not  think  that 
we  can  get  as  good  butter  or  as  much  fi-om  the  siuue  quantity  of 
cream.     I  do  not  think  that  we  can  make  good  butter  to  keep  a  week 


fiHIPPINQ  BOX  FOR  BUTTKR. 


by  that  process,  as  the  cream  thus  sepai'ated  is  not  in  the  right  condition 
for  chiu-ning;  for  unless,  after  the  sej^iu-ation  is  made,  it  iskejit  for  the 
same  length  of  time,  there  would  be  no  advantage.  For  cheese 
factories,  where  the  cream  is  taken  off  for  butter  and  the  sweet  skimmed 
millc  is  used  for  cheese,  it  would  be  sen-iceable. 

Q.  One  of  the  most  common  complaints  of  the  dairy  farmer  is  the 
ti'ouble  in  getting  help  for  the  dau-y.     How  do  you  manage  tliis  ? 

A.  I  have  no  trouble  whatever,  as  it  is  all  done  within  my  own 
family.  My  two  daughters  have  taken  turns  since  they  were  fomieen 
yeai's  old  in  the  dairy,  month  about.  The  thing  is  now  so  siiiiple,  that 
even  a  cai'cful  girl  of  that  age  is  capable  of  doing  the  work  without 
much  exertion;  the  labor  of  dair^nng  being  so  much  eased  and  sim- 
jjlified  by  improved  machinery  and  methods.  Outside  of  the  dau-y 
there  is  a  large  boiler  or  kettle,  which  holds  forty  gallons  of  water, 
which  is  supplied  fi'om  the  waste  of  the  creameiy.     The  fire  is  made 


AKPtAXtiEMENT    OF    THE    DaIRY.  183 

under  this  boiler  the  first  thing  iu  the  uioming,  so  that  all  the 
utensils  are  washed  and  scoured,  and  left  on  a  table  under  a  shed  to 
au-  and  sweeten.  After  the  churn  is  emptied  it  is  washed  out,  fii-st 
with  cold  water,  then  thoroughly  scalded  and  finallj^  again  washed 
vrith  cold  water.  It  is  then  wiped  dry  with  perfectly  cleau  towels. 
This  matter  of  perfectly  clean  and  sweet  towels  and  wiping  cloths  is 
of  too  gTeat  imj)oi-tance  to  be  neglected  as  it  too  often  is.  It  is  one 
of  the  great  little  things  in  the  dairy.  The  butter  worker  and  moulds 
are  then  thoroughly  washed  and  cleaned  in  the  same  way,  in  readiness 
for  the  nest  churning,  the  work  being  so  easily  and  quickly  done 
that  about  fom-  hours  completes  it  aU.  The  setting  of  the  milk  and 
the  skimming  and  coUeeting  of  the  cream  does  not  occupy  more  than 
one  hoiu-  each  time,  twice  a  daj". 

The  dairy  is  a  plain  stracture,  twelve  foot  post  and  single  roof.  It 
consists  of  three  rooms.  No.  1  is  for  the  creameries.  No.  2  is  the 
cold  room  for  working  the  butter  and  preserving  it.  No.  3  is  the  ice 
room.  Nos.  1  and  2  are  finished  with  hard  finish  and  painted. 
No.  1  is  suppUed  with  water  from  a  faucet,  which  is  fed  from  a  tank 
into  which  it  is  pumped  by  a  windmUl.  The  average  amount  of 
butter  from  the  dairy  is  about  200  lbs.  per  week,  imless  it  is  in  the 
summer,  when  many  of  my  city  customers  are  away  in  the  country, 
and  for  this  reason  I  make  it  a  point  to  have  as  many  of  my  cows 
come  in  in  the  fall  as  possible.  At  convenient  distance  from  the  dairy 
the  calf  pens  ai'e  placed.  The  skimmed  mUk  being  di'awn  fi-om  the 
creameries  is  mixed  as  jireviously  stated  with  gruel  made  of  oat  meal 
and  flaxseed  meal,  and  taken  direct  to  the  calves.  The  calf  pens  or 
boxes  are  twenty-four  by  sixteen  feet,  and  are  littered  with  straw  so 
that  the  calves  have  every  chance  to  jump  and  play.  After  each  meal 
theii- troughs  are  taken  out  and  thoroughly  cleaned;  in  this  case,  as 
in  all  others,  cleanliness  is  imperative.  If  any  milk  is  left  by  the 
calves,  it  is  taken  direct  to  the  h(  igs,  which,  as  is  well  known,  are  the 
scavengers  of  the  cattle  yai'd.  The  buttermilk  when  taken  from  the 
churn  is  put  into  a  large  cask  or  baiTel,  and  mixed  with  bran  in  the 
summer  season  and  fed  to  Berkshire  hogs.  I  may  state  that  in  these 
loose  boxes  in  which  the  calves  are  kept  every  precaution  is  taken  to 
admit  as  much  light  and  air  as  practicable,  without  allo\^ing  the  sun 
to  beat  in  upon  them.  The  doors  of  these  i^ens  all  around  the  build- 
ing are  supplied  with  foiu-  hinges,  and  each  door  is  cut  across  the 
middle,  so  that  the  ujjper  half  can  be  opened  and  closed  at  will. 
The  upper  doors  are  left  open  at  night  to  give  plenty  of  ventilation, 
and  in  the  day-time  a  thin  gunny  bagging  is  fastened  across  as  a  shade. 
The  calves  are  protected  from  any  sudden  change  or  high  wind  by 
the  lower  doors  being  kept  shut. 


184 


How  THK  Faioi  Pays. 


FARM  HORSES. 

Although  an  important  animal  for  the  farm,  the  horse  is  in  most  cases 
secondary  to  cattle;  but,  as  with  cattle,  it  is  always  best  to  have  such 
breeds  as  will  perform  their  work  in  the  best  manner.  I  have  used 
several  breeds  of  horses  forfiu'm  work,  notably  the  Clydesdales,  which 
originated  in  Scotland,  and  which  ai'e  used  there  almost  exclusively. 
They  ai'e  now  becoming  great  favorites  in  the  cities  here  for  heavy 
di-aft  horses.  It  has  been  oljjectedto  the  Clydesdale  that  he  is  slow; 
but,  after  a  trial  of  different  breeds,  I  find  that  the  Clyde  horse  can 
plow  more  acres  in  a  week  than  any  other  breed  T  have  used.     In 


18(59  a  premium  was  offered  by  the  Queens  County,  N.  Y.,  Agricultural 
Society  for  the  best  wiilking  team  of  any  breed.  I  entered  a  pair  of 
Clydes  in  a  conifietition  of  a  dozen  pair,  and  won  the  prize  of  $50. 
Again,  at  oui"  plowing  match  the  summer  following,  at  !Mineola,  where 
some  thirty  plows  had  entered  to  plow  half  an  acre  in  a  given  time, 
two  paii'S  of  my  Clyde  horses  came  out  first.  In  the  horse  market  of 
this  countiy  nothing  is  such  a  hindrance  to  real  sales  as  the  wsuit  of 
size.     No  matter  how  jierfectly  the  horse  may  be  built,  Avith  strong 


The  Percheron-Norman  Horse. 


185 


"body  or  short  limbs — if  lie  is  small,  lie  brings  only  a  low  price,  and 
this  even  smaller,  in  proportion  to  his  size,  than  the  value  of  a  lai-ger  horse. 
The  law  that  like  jsroduces  like,  or  the  Ukeness  of  some  ancestor,  refers, 
of  course,  as  much  to  size,  as  to  form,  color,  temjserament  and  action; 
and  I  think  that  the  Clyde  hoi-se,  weighing  1,500  or  1,600  pounds,  when 
crossed  on  our  native  hght  mares,  weighing  1,000  or  1,100  jiounds, 
makes  one  of  the  most  valuable  breeds  for  farm  work. 

Q.  Would  it  not  be  an  objection  to  the  Clydesdale  horse  that  its 
cost  would  be  entu-ely  beyond  the  reach  of  the  ordinaiy  farmer  ? 

A.  They  are  now  being  bred  in  the  west  in  large  numbers,  and  in  the 
New  York  horse  markets  half  blood  Clydes  can  be  i^rocured  without 


PEECHEBON-NOEMAN    HOESE. 


trouble  nearly  as  cheap  as  the  ordinai-y  Ohio  or  Pennsylvania  horses 
that  have  been  supplying  these  markets  for  years  jiast. 

Q.  '\Miat  do  you  consider  the  best  age  and  weight  for  a  farm  horse? 

A.  I  hai'dly  ever  jiui'chase  a  horse  that  has  to  do  steady  work  at 
less  than  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  and  for  farm  purposes,  from 
1,200  to  1,100  pounds  in  weight.  Horses  of  this  age  and  weight  can 
be  piu-chased  in  the  Xew  York  markets,  at  this  time,  for  about  $.500 
per  pair.  The  Percheron  horse  is  also  imported  in  large  numbers 
into  this  counti'v  and  is  used  in  the  West  for  breeding.     "When  crossed 


186 


How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 


with  our  common  hoi-se  this  makes  an  excellent  farm  animaL  They 
are  not  as  good  walkers  as  the  Clvdesdales,  and  in  my  esjjerience  I 
have  found  them  harder  keepers  and  more  subject  to  ailments.  Their 
bone  is  larger  than  the  Clyde  horse,  the  legs  of  the  latter  being 
something  similar  in  shape  to  that  of  a  two  by  foui--inch  jilauk.  The 
Perchei'on  has  become  very  numerous  in  the  "Western  States,  and  seems 
to  suit  the  special  cii"cumstances  of  the  "Western  country  exceedingly 
well.  It  is  as  heavy  as  the  Clydesdale,  but  jierhaps  mther  coarser  in 
its  build.  The  Suffolk  Punch  has  also  been  imported  into  this  coiintrj-, 
but  tliey  ai'e  too  slow  for  the  American  jseople.     They  make  the  very- 


best  horses  for  city  work,  as  they  are  capable  of  hauling  immense  loads. 
The  Cleveland  Bays  have  been  bretl  extensively  in  the  "West  and  South, 
particulai-ly  in  Kentucky  suid  Virginia,  for  coach  horses.  The  English 
CiU-t  Horse  has  also  been  introduced  into  the  "United  States,  but  as 
yet  I  have  not  hesuxl  of  theii-  success  in  any  way.  In  my  opinion  the 
Highland  Clyde  or  tlie  Canadian  hoi-se  \vill  answer  every  pmpose  on 
our  fiu-ms  better  than  any  other.  Their  weight  is  from  1,200  to  1,400 
jxiunds.  They  are  clean  in  the  bone,  easy  keepei-s.  good  walkers, 
and  have  not  tlie  objection  of  excessive  size    that  might  be  urged 


The  Feeding  of  Horses.  187 

against  the  Lowland  Clyde.  These  horses  are  used  to  a  large  extent 
in  Lower  Canada,  Quebec  and  Monti'eal. 

As  there  is  a  large  demand  for  horses  for  citj^  use,  and  also  for 
exportation,  the  breeding  of  these  as  a  business  might  be  i^rofitably 
undertaken  bj-  manj'  more  farmers  than  now  give  attention  to  it. 
A  class  of  horses  of  moderate  weight,  but  stout,  clean  limbed  and  active, 
is  lai-gely  sought  by  the  horse-car  comj)anies  and  many  thousands  of 
them  are  pui'chased  everj'  year.  Foreign  governments,  too,  are  now  pro- 
cuiing  horses  for  then-  armies  here  iu  lai'ge  numbers.  This  class  of  hoi'ses 
is  bred  from  lai-ge  mares  of  the  kinds  above  described,  cross;d  with 
horses  having  some  thoroughbred  blood,  the  j)rogeny  being  able  to 
endure  severe  work  and  having  a  strong  constitution.  The  breeding  of 
roadsters  is  also  a  very  profitable  part  of  farm  business  at  the  j^resent 
time. 

Li  this  section  of  the  comitry  the  use  of  mules  upon  farms  is  not  nearly 
so  general  as  in  the  South  and  parts  of  the  AVest.  But  for  some 
pm-poses  mules  are  preferable  to  horses,  as,  for  instance,  where  the 
work  is  hard,  and  when  the  team  is  exjjosed  to  neglect,  and  not  fed 
as  well  as  it  might  be.  But  this  should  not  be  made  an  excuse 
for  neglecting  them,  nor  for  preferring  mules  without  other  and 
better  reasons,  as  no  other  fai-m  stock  pays  better  for  good  eai-e  and 
treatment  than  the  fiuiu  team. 

We  feed  our  horses  iu  winter  in  about  the  same  way  that  we  do  our 
cattle.  "UTien  spring  comes  and  thej^  have  to  go  to  plowing,  they  ai'e 
fed  oats  at  noon  time,  cut  feed  at  night  and  oats  in  the  morning,  a 
mash  of  bran  being  given  them  twice  a  week.  The  colts  ai-e  fed  -w-ith 
the  same  mixtoie  as  that  given  the  cattle,  with  two  or  three  quarts  of 
bruised  oats  per  day;  we  braise  the  oats  lest  they  might  be  jsassed  undi- 
gested. Ruta  Bagas  or  carrots  mixed  with  meal  make  an  excellent 
feed  for  horses;  in  fact,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  the  verj-  best 
feed  for  bringing  a  horse  into  good  condition.  It  is  fed  in  quantities 
of  about  fouiieen  pounds  of  the  roots,  and  three  to  four  pounds  of 
meal  mixed  with  a  httle  salt.  Thousands  of  horses  are  injured  by 
feeding  exclusively  on  grain  and  corn  meal,  which  is  very  apt  to  give  the 
colic.  The  usual  remedy  for  colic  is  to  take  the  horse  out  and 
walk  him  rapidly,  i-ub  the  beUy,  and  give  injections  of  soap  suds. 
These  remedies  are  usually  successful. 

A  caution  might  here  be  given  against  the  common  practice 
of  giving  active  medicines  or  tlrags  to  animals  without  any  knowledge 
of  what  is  the  matter  with  them.  No  medicines  of  any  kind  should 
ever  be  given  to  any  animal  without  some  clear  idea  of  its  purpose, 
derived  from  inteUigent  study  of  some  good  veterinary  work,  or  on 
the  advice  of  some  competent  veterinaiy  surgeon. 


188  How  THE  Fahm  Pays. 

The  breedmg  of  horses  as  a  si)ecial  pursuit  upou  farms  has  been 
fouuil  veiy  protitable.  Men  of  wealth  have  greatly  increased  the 
TiUue  of  theii-  property,  and  have  had  the  eujo^Tuent  of  a  pleasant 
aud  he.dthful  occupation  at  the  same  time,  iu  the  midst  of  their  stud. 
This  has  been  fi-equently  the  case  iu  Vu-ginia,  Kentucky  aud  ilissouii, 
but  more  especially  where  the  names  of  Alexander,  Harper,  aud  sev- 
ei'al  other  noted  breeders,  and  of  such  horses  as  Lexington,  Long- 
fellow, Leamington,  and  other  remarkable  sii-es,  will  always  be 
remembered.  The  class  of  horses  thus  bred,  however,  have  been 
used  for  pleasure  and  sport,  for  the  turf  or  for  di-iving,  and  for  useful 
roadsters.  The  demand  for  such  hoi-ses  is  not  likely  to  become  less, 
but,  on  the  conti'ary,  to  increase  greatly,  and  the  steady  and  jirofitable 
business  which  has  been  built  up  will,  beyond  a  doubt,  1)ecome  verj' 
much  extended.  The  race  of  Auierican  trotting  horses  is  now  known 
aud  admu-ed  all  over  the  world;  our  carriage  horses  are  sought  for 
by  wealthy  Europeans,  and  even  for  business  puii^oses  our  light, 
active,  but  strong  and  serviceable  draft  horses  are  iu  large  and 
increasing  demand.  Thus  a  large  opening  exists  for  entei'j)rise  in 
this  direction,  which  may  be  profitably  tilled,  not  only  by  ]uen  of 
wealth,  who  invest  their  capital  in  agriculture  for  pleasure  as  weU  as 
profit,  but  also  by  those  who  follow  the  pui'suit  of  farming  for  a 
living.  The  breeds  above  refeired  to  are  for  draft  aud  fanu  purjioses 
chieliy,  excepting  the  Cleveland  Bay,  which  is  in  demand,  idso,  for 
large  carnage  or  coupe  horses,  and  some  animals  of  this  strain  have 
been  exported  for  this  jiui'j^ose,  notably  several  tine  ones,  which  were 
piu-cha.sed  for  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  when  he  was  in  the  height 
of  his  good  fortune.  But  the  horses  mostly  desired  for  roadsters  are 
of  the  English  thoroughbred  strains,  and  fi-om  these  have  beeu  bred 
the  race  known  as  Ameiican  trotting  horees.  These  animals  are  cer- 
tainly far  more  usefid  than  the  running  horses  used  for  sporting 
purposes,  and  come  du-ectl}-  under  notice  in  a  work  devoted  to  the 
subject  of  protitable  farming,  because  they  are  mostly  bred  and  reai'ed 
upon  farms,  and  the  better  class  of  farm  mares,  crossed  by  thorough- 
bred horses,  are  lai-gely  used  for  theii-  production.  The  Morgan 
strains,  which  have  beeu  of  such  great  service  in  this  respect,  have 
furnished  hundreds  of  sires,  which  have  been  scattered  all  over  the 
country,  and  have  put  thousands  of  dolhu-s  into  fiu-mers'  pockets. 
Another  noted  instance  was  the  horse  Hambletonian,  whose  blood  now 
runs  in  numerous  strains,  each  of  which  had  its  source  in  a  fanu  mare. 

The  protit  of  horse  breeding  may  be  eiisUy  shown  by  the  study  of 
the  reports  of  the  mai'ket  values  of  hoi-ses,  of  which  a  specimen  is 
here  given,  copied  from  a  leading  paper. 

In  these  it  may  he  found  that  a  horse  of  1,100  or  l,'20(i  jiounds  sells 


Profit  of  Horse  Breeding. 


18» 


for  from  twenty  to  thii'tj'  cents  a  pound  live  weight,  while  a  steer  brings 
no  more  than  from  five  to  six  cents  a  jDOund  on  foot.  As  it  costs  no  more 
to  rear  a  colt  to  three  years  of  age  than  to  bring  a  steer  of  the  same  age 
into  condition  for  market,  when  it  weighs  but  little  more  than  the  horse, 
and  after  that  age  a  horse  more  than  earns  his  feed  until  he  is  sold,  it  is 
easily  seen  that  there  is  more  than  four  times  as  much  monej'  in  the 
horse  than  in  the  steer. 


DESCHIPTION. 


Bay  driver 

Black  driver. 

Black  di'iver 

Bay  driver 

Chestnut  driver 

Bay  driver 

Draft  team 

Draft  team 

Draft  team 

Draft  team 

Gray  mare 

Bay  mare 

Brown  horse 

Gray  horse 

Gray  horse 

Bay  horse 

One  car-load  of  farm  horses,  per  head. 

Six  farm  horses,  per  head 

One  coupe  horse 


15^ 

15i 

15i 

16i 

151 

16 

16 

16 

16 

151 

15f 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16i 


1,000 
1,100 
1,100 
1,300 
1,000 
1,160 
2,500 
2,800 
2,900 
2,400 
1,300 
1,400 
1,250 
1,400 
1,450 
1,500 


1,300 


$175 
350 
250 
250 
115 
185 
375 
425 
450 
325 
185 
195 
160 
150 
210 
210 
85 
105 
250 


It  costs  no  more  to  rear  a  good  horse  than  a  poor  one,  excepting 
the  expense  of  service,  which  may  be  $25  or  $50,  while  the  colt  fi-om 
the  better  horse  is  quite  likely  to  bring  more  than  the  extra  sum  paid 
for  the  service  of  his  sii-e.  This  fact  apphes  to  the  rearing  of  all 
kinds  of  stock,  and  it  should  be  a  maxim  with  farmers  to  "  always 
breed  the  best."  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  breed  from  unsound 
animals,  because  these  defects  of  unsoundness  in  nearly  all  cases 
descend  to  the  progeny.  Thei'e  are  thousands  of  diseased  horses 
that  are  bred  from  diseased  mares,  and  inherit  their  defects  from  the 
dams  or  sii'es.  Therefore,  the  first  requisite  in  breeding  horses  should 
be  to  use  only  sound,  healthy  mares,  and  to  use  a  sound  sire.  Siia\'ins 
and  other  diseases  of  the  joints,  blindness,  bad  temper,  and  many 
other  defects,  become  constitutional,  and  are  reproduced  from  gen- 
eration to  generation,  and  thus  it  is  that  there  are  so  many  unsound 
horses  in  existence. 


190  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

Tbe  second  requisite  is  a  good  luare.  For  a  roadster  or  a  carriage 
Lorse  a  large  mai-e  should  be  chosen;  it  does  not  matter  if  the  bone 
is  rather  coarse  if  the  sire  is  a  thoroughbred,  or  even  a  wcU  bred 
horse  of  thoroughbred  lineage.  It  is  a  characteristic  of  a  thorough- 
bred that  the  bone  is  hard  and  sohd,  and  although  fine,  it  has  more 
strength  than  the  coarser  bone  of  the  common  stock;  and  it  is  also 
characteristic  of  the  higher  bred  sire  that  he  will  confer  this  property 
upon  his  colts.  Some  time  ago  a  few  Russian  horses,  known  as  the 
Orloff  breed,  were  imported  into  this  country.  These  were  fine 
specimens  of  sires  for  roadsters  or  trotters,  and  as  they  have  been 
bred  and  kept  for  this  purpose  in  Russia  for  many  years,  they  would 
be  of  great  value  for  breeding  here.  Tbe  Orloff  hoi-se  is  very  com- 
pact, and  has  great  endurance  and  considerable  speed,  with  a  remark- 
ably good  constitution.  An  excellent  portrait  of  one  of  these  hoi-ses 
is  given  on  the  opposite  page. 

After  the  breeding,  the  managemen  of  the  mare  is  the  next 
important  point;  for  while  the  sire  gives  the  general  form  and  consti- 
tution to  the  progeny,  the  dam  gives  the  disposition  and  temper. 
The  mare  should,  therefore,  be  treated  with  good  judgment,  and  her 
feeding  should  be  generous  and  regular.  The  training  and  feeding 
of  the  colt  must,  of  course,  be  equally  weU  managed,  for  many  good 
colts  are  spoiled  by  bad  manngement,  in  spite  of  all  the  pre^•ious  care 
in  the  breeding.  This  is  also  time  as  regards  horses,  for  the  value 
and  2)rofit  of  a  horse  depends  quite  as  much  upon  good  treatment  in 
its  use  as  in  its  breeding.  Many  hoi-ses  are  injured  by  carelessness 
in  shoeing,  by  which  the  feet  are  i-uined,  and,  as  is  well  known,  ' '  no 
foot,  no  horse,"  for  the  feet  of  a  working  animal  must  be  sound  and 
in  good  condition,  or  the  hoi-se  soon  becomes  entii'ely  useless.  HI 
fitting  hai-ness  is  another  fi-equent  cause  of  injury  to  hoi-ses,  by  which 
its  abiUty  to  work  is  gi-eatly  reduced. 

The  fai-mer  who  makes  a  special  business  of  rearing  horses  must 
necessai-ily  study  special  works  on  this  subject,  and  be  a  close  and 
thoughtful  obsei-ver  for  himself.  All  that  can  be  done  in  this  work 
is  to  call  attention  to  these  sjiecitd  points,  that  they  may  not  lie  over- 
looked. 

There  is  considerable  profit  in  rearing  the  small  bi-eed  of  horses 
know^n  as  Shetland  ponies.  This  is  a  veiy  diminutive  animal,  as  may 
be  seen  by  the  engraving,  which  shows  its  relative  size  as  compared  with 
the  Orloff' stiiUion.  They  ai-e  in  demand  near  the  lai-ge  cities  for  chil- 
dren's use,  and  usually  sell  for  $100  each  and  upwards.  A  pair  makes  a 
very  good  team  for  a  small  carriage,  as  these  ponies  ai-e  strong  and  stout 
and  of  great  bottom.  The  cngi-a^-ing  represents  one  ''in  the  rough," 
as  it  was  imported  a  few^  years  ago  in  a  herd  of  about  twenty.     These 


Sheep. 


191 


animals  are  natives  of  the  northern  part  of  Scotland  and  of  the  Shet- 
land Islands,  a  locality  exposed  to  severe  storms  and  ha^ani?  a  ripi'orous 


climate,  in  which  they  niu  in  herds  without  any  shelter  at  any  season 
of  the  year. 


Next  to  the  finer  breeds  of  cattle,  my  experience  with  sheep  has  prob- 
ably afforded  me  most  pleasure  and  profit.  Although  sheep  keejiing 
is  not  generally  as  profitable  as  breeding  the  finer  classes  of  cattle,  in  some 
localities,  yet  it  might  be  made  more  so  in  hilly  or  mountainous  dis- 
tricts, such  as  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  the  higher  lands  of  Virginia, 
North   Carolina  and  other   Southern  States.     Great   attention  has 


192 


How  THE  Farm  Pavs. 


been  given  to  sheep  breeding,  and  the  finer  kinds  have  been  gi-eatlj- 
improved  by  the  care  and  skill  of  the  breeders  during  some  years  past. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  I  imported  a  few  Leicester  sheep,  which  were 
then  the  ruling  breed  in  England,  but  after  a  few  years'  experience  I 
found  they  were  not  suited  to  this  climate.  The  lambs  grew  to  a  lai-ge 
size  and  weight,  but  did  not  produce  much  fat  The  average 
fleece  unwashed  weighed  fi'om  nine  to  ten  pounds,  and  after  three 
j'eai"s  I  found  they  were  much  given  to  disease  and  the  percentage 
of  loss  was  so  great  that  I  abandoned  the  sheep  trial  for  several  years. 
I  tliink  it  was  in  18G7  that  I  imported  a  few  Cotswolds,  which  pro- 
duced good  lambs  and  heavier  fleeces  than  the  Leicesters,  and  the 
wool  being  better  for  combing,  brought  a  much  better  price.  The 
ram  weighed  when  fully  grown  iio  lbs.,  and  the  weight  of  his  fleece 


SUDTH  1XJ\V> 


■was  24  lbs.  The  ram  lambs  sold  for  from  $40  to  $50  each,  for  breed- 
ing purposes,  but  like  the  Leicestei-s,  they  began  to  nni  down  after 
two  or  thi'ee  years,  and  I  think  were  not  suited  for  the  cUmate.  I  had 
a  few  imported  South  Do^xtis  at  the  same  time,  and  crossed  a  Cotswold 
ram  on  one  of  the  ewes;  this  ewe  produced  a  ewe  lamb  which  I  bred 
to  a  South  Down  ram.  The  produce  of  this  cross  I  lired  in  and  in 
until  I  had  a  flock  of  twenty,  which  I  named  Beacon  Downs.  All 
sheep  men  who  saw  them  admired  them  for  their  compact  forms,  the 
length  and  fineness  of  wool  and  their  early  matiuity,  and  they  soon 
found  a  market  among  breeders.  Of  my  three  importations,  the  South 
Downs  proved  to  be  the  best  suited  for  this   climate.     I  think  one 


CoTSWoiD  Ram. 


193 


194  How  THE  Faum  Pays. 

great  cause  of  the  failure  of  loug-wool  sheep  iu  this  oountr\-,  is  that 
they  are  often  left  to  take  care  of  themselves,  aud  the  rains  or  snows 
beat  into  their  wool,  and  bv  chilUn;^  them  produce  lung  disordei"s. 
Although  in  Europe  tliere  is  less  rain-fall  than  here,  yet  the  climate  is 
moister  and  cooler,  and  there  are  not  so  many  sudden  changes,  which 
are  exceedingly  hurtful  to  sheep,  especially  those  vnih  open  Heece. 
The  South  Down  gives  what  is  called  a  middle  wool,  which  is  iu  gi-eat 
demand  in  our  markets  and  for  the  country  woolen  mills.  The  fleece 
is  so  thick  that  the  rains  cannot  penetrate  it,  and  when  the  sheei)  give 
themselves  a  shake,  as  they  generally  do,  they  thi-ow  the  water  oft". 
Tliey  are  very  hardy,  and  thrifty  feeders,  and  when  2)ut  upon  green 
feed  or  jsastm-e  they  seem  to  fatten  quicker  than  any  other  breed  of 
sheep  I  know  of.  The  lambs  mature  eai-ly  aud  wiU  bring  from  one 
to  two  cents  per  lb.  more  iu  our  markets  than  any  other  breed.  The 
ewes  are  very  prolific  and  ■wih  bring  generaUj-  two  lambs  every  spring. 
The  average  of  wool  fi'oni  my  flock  this  spring,  which  is  direct  fi'om 
Lord  "Walsingham's  (England),  was  ten  jJounds  per  fleece,  which  is 
largely  over  the  general  average.  The  flock  increased  over  double, 
losing  onlj'  one  lamb.  I  have  sent  South  Down  rams  as  far  as  Texas 
and  Montana;  and  from  those  sent  the  report  is  that  they  have  made  a 
better  cross  than  any  other  pure  breeds  they  have  had  a  trial  with.  If 
theewcsare  bred  early  in  the  fall, so  as  to  comein  in  midwinter,  carefully 
fed  and  housed,  the  lambs  will  dress  as  much  as  thiiiy  pounds  when  ten 
weeks  old  aud  will  bring  in  our  large  cities  early  in  the  spring  fi'om 
twenty-five  to  thii'ty  cents  jter  pound.  At  this  eai'ly  season  only  a 
limited  number  could  be  sold,  and  the  cost  of  rearing  them  is  of 
course  larger  than  at  a  later  season. 

There  is  a  class  of  remarkably  useful  sheep  which  have  all  more  or 
less  South  Down  blood  in  them,  and  which  have  the  black  or  dai-k  faces 
and  medium  clothing  wool  of  the  South  Down.  These  are  generally 
known  as  the  "Down"  breeds.  They  are  larger  in  the  carcass  aud 
have  more  wool  than  the  South  Down,  but  the  flesh  is  not  so  deUcately 
flavored.  As  these  sheep  have  been  introduced  into  America  and 
have  met  with  general  popular  favor,  and  moreover  as  they  well 
desen'e  it,  some  notice  should  be  taken  of  them  iu  this  work. 


SHROPSHIRE  DOWN. 

This  sheep  is  not  much  larger  than  the  South  Down  and  closely 
resembles  it  in  character.  It  differs  in  its  more  open  fleece  of  some- 
what longer  aud  coarser  wool  from  tlie  South  Down,  and  is  perhaps 
rather  more  hardy  and  more  adapted  for  roughing  it  in  oiu-  less  parti- 


Hampshire  Dow'x. 


195 


•cular  and  considerate  methods  of  keeping  sheep.     This  breed  has 
teen  introduced  into  eveiy  State  of  the  Union,  and  several  flocks  of 


SHBOPSHIRE  RAM. 


ihem  are  kept  in  CaUfornia.     The  illustratiou  here  given  is  a  very 
accurate  representation  of  this  sheep. 


HAMPSHIRE  DOVm. 


This  breed  is  the  most  popular  of  all  of  this  class  of  cross-bred 
sheep.  Its  face  and  legs  are  black  and  its  frame  is  large  and  broad. 
'These    sheep   were   introduced  into    Virginia  forty    yeai's  ago  and 


HAMPSHIBE  DOWN  KAM. 


although  the  pure  race  has  melted  away,  it  has  left  its  traces  widely 
spread  among  the  native  sheep.  More  recently  a  large  number  of 
them  has  been  imported,  and  they  have  done  well,  especially  for  cross- 


196  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

ing  on  the  natives  for  j)roclucing  large  early  market  lambs.  For  this 
purjjose  perhaps  there  is  no  better  sheep  than  this.  Year-old  lambs 
have  been  known  to  di-ess  100  lbs.  The  wool  is  fine  and  longer  than 
that  of  the  South  Down;  tlie  fleece  averages  about  eight  pounds. 
The  wool  is  very  close  and  comijact,  and  sheds  xain  very  weU;  conse- 
quently the  sheep  of  this  breed  are  hardy,  and  do  not  suffer  fi-om  our 
heavy  rains  and  snows  as  the  long  wool  sheep  do. 


OXFORD  V>OWS. 

The  Oxford  Down  is  a  still  larger  sheep  and  has  a  still  coarser  and 
longer  fleece  than  the  South  Down,  which  is  a  grandparent  of  this 
breed.  The  Oxford  Down  is  a  cross  of  the  Hamjishire  Down  upon 
the  Cotswold,  and  while  it  has  the  dark  face  of  the  Downs,  it  has  the 
long  wool  and  more  open  fleece  of  the  Cotswold.     It  is  a  veiy  good 


OXJFORD  DOWN  IlAil. 


mutton  sheep  and  does  well  in  this  country.  It  matui-es  early  and 
twenty-t^vo-months-old  wethers  have  weighed  300  lbs.  each  when  fat. 
The  rams  have  been  known  to  shear  twenty  pounds  of  wooL 

THE   AMERICAN  MERINO. 

The  Merino  is  a  short  or  fine  wooled  sheep  which  jiroduces  large 
quantities  of  unwashed  wool,  and  I  have  seen  as  high  as  thirty-four 
pounds  taken  from  one  ram,  but  when  washed  there  was  so  much 
yolk  in  it  that  it  was  reduced  dowTi  to  eight  pounds.     This  breed  is 


The  American  Merino.  197 

especially  a  wool  sheep,  although  nine-tenths  of  the  American  mutton 
is  from  sheep  of  more  or  less  Merino  blood.  The  Merino  is  well  fitted 
ior  hUly  or  mountainous  sections  of  the  country,  and  are  bred  largely  in 
Vermont,  western  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  from  which  places 
many  thousands  are  shipped  to  Texas,  the  western  plains  and  to 
California.  Many  are  sent  to  Austi-alia,  where  they  are  cousidered  as 
the  best  fine  wool  sheep  in  the  world.  Some  of  the  rams  of  this 
"breed  have  been  held  as  high  as  S25,000  and  sold  for  $10,000  each, 
and  as  an  instance  of  the  effect  upon  the  market  values  of  fann 
animals  of  the  vagaries  of  fashion,  sheep  of  this  same  breed  have  since 
then  been  sold  for  the  value  of  their  pelts. 

The  American  Merino  originated  fi'om  the  Spanish  Merinos,  some 
thousands  of  which  were  imi^orted  many  years  ago,  and  by  long 
continued  careful  breeding  it  has  become  the  first  sheep  of  its  class 
in  the   world.     Mr.  Hammond  and  another  Vermont  farmer,   Mr. 


MERINO  Il.\M  AND  EWE. 


Atwood,  desem-e  the  greatest  credit  for  establishing  this  breed,  which 
is  reaUy  the  basis  of  the  native  sheep  and  wool  interest  of  this  country. 
The  Merino  is  used  for  improving  the  common  Mexican  and  Texan 
sheep,  of  which  fioeks  of  several  thousands  are  kept  all  over  the 
plains  from  Texas  to  California,  and  as  far  north  as  Wyoming  and 
Montana.  Its  blood  is  more  or  less  mingled  with  the  forty  miUion  of 
sheep  which  now  exist  in  this  countrj-,  and  its  value  for  improving 
and  increasing  ovu*  production  of  wool  can  scarcely  be  estimated  in 
figures.  While  I  think  the  South  Down  is  a  better  mutton  sheep, 
yet  there  is  no  other  sheep  in  existence  but  the  Merino  that  can 
furnish  us  with  the  fine  wool  we  require  for  our  woolen  manufacture. 
In  choosing  sheef)  the  farmer  must  of  com-se  take  this  fact  into  account, 
"because  in  most  cases  it  is  the  wool  which  gives  him  the  profit  fi'om 
his  flock. 


198  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

My  plan  of  feedinf^  slieep  in  -winter  is  -with  cut  "  peas  and  oats " 
and  turnips.  They  require  little  water,  but  vrater  should  aln-ays  be 
kept  ■within  their  reach.  They  require  also,  as  all  other  animals  do, 
a  reasonable  tjuantity  of  salt  and  a  little  sulphur  occasionally.  In 
the  spring  of  the  year  I  tura  the  sheep  onto  the  young  wheat  alx)ut 
the  1st  of  May.  The  sheep  eat  the  wheat  leaves  off  close,  and  cause 
it  to  thicken  and  stool  out ;  their  tlroppiugs  also  serve  as  a  top  dress- 
ing and  their  ti'eading  fii-ms  the  i-oots  of  the  wheat  in  the  soiL 
"When  the  sheep  ai-e  taken  off  the  wheat,  they  are  put  on  pasture, 
and  I  have  received  the  most  benefit  from  them  when  herded  on  rape. 
The  rape  is  followed  by  a  mustard  crop,  and  when  this  is  done,  the 
land  may  be  prepai-ed  for  a  crop  of  turnips  of  the  softer  kinds, 
such  as  Yellow  Aberdeens  or  Tankards,  which  are  eaten  on  the  land 
by  the  sheep,  as  this  is  one  of  the  best  plans  of  bringing  up  poor 
land  ready  for  seeding.  The  greatest  care  should,  however,  be  taken 
when  mustai-d  or  rape  is  grown,  not  to  suffer  these  crops  to  seed  and 
stock  the  soil,  but  to  plow  under  the  refuse  before  it  blossoms. 

Q.  At  about  what  date  do  you  turn  in  the  sheep  on  the  turnip  crop? 

A.  From  the  1st  to  the  10th  of  October.  I  have  fed  a  fiock  of 
fifty  sheep  on  two  acres  from  tliat  time  up  to  the  end  of  December, 
or  neai'ly  three  months,  by  giving  them  a  little  hay  in  racks  made  for 
that  purpose  in  the  txu-nip  fiekl  Those  sheep  I  piu'chivsed  at  the 
sheej)  mai-ket  in  New  York  City,  costing  me  $3.50  per  heaA  I  sold 
them  to  the  butcher  for  $9.00  each  in  Januarv,  or  in  about  foiu- 
montlis  after  tliey  were  pm-chsi-sed,  thus  making  $275  for  the  feed  and 
care,  besides  leaving  the  laud  iu  an  improved  contlition  on  account  of 
tlie  manui-e.  The  liuid  was  sowu  -with  oats,  gi-asses  and  clover  in  the 
spring.  If  I  had  pui'chiised  the  m;uim-e  for  this  land  it  would  have 
cost  me  fully  $20,  so  that  taking  into  consideration  the  labor  in  caiing' 
for  the  sheep,  and  tlie  cultivation  of  the  laud,  I  may  say  iu  round 
numbei's,  that  the  four  acres  of  I'ape  and  two  acres  of  turnips  gave  me  a 
net  profit  of  considerably  more  than  $200.  They  were  of  mixed  blood, 
piuHy  South  Downs  and  piu-tly  Cotswt>lds — what  ai-e  called  Camida 
8heei> — a  lai-ge  bodied,  tluifty  sheep,  which  makes  the  best  mutton  of 
any  in  America  I  piu'cliased  them,  as  I  s;ud  before,  at  the  New  York 
mai-ket  for  the  piui^ose  of  feeding  off  this  rape  and  the  tui-nips,  and 
to  mauui-e  the  laud  and  jn-epai-e  it  for  a  futiu-e  crop. 

Sheep  should  be  kept  out  of  stonus.  It  is  al.so  better  not  to  keep 
over  forty  or  fifty  in  a  Hock  together.  They  should  never  be  housed 
in  a  damp  building,  as  they  are  veiy  susceptible  to  foot-rot,  and  once 
this  sets  in  it  wiU  work  thi-ough  the  entii-e  herd  if  not  prevented. 
"Ulien  this  ti-ouble  occiu-s  the  hoof  is  to  be  pared  down  to  remove  aU 
unsound  honi  and  the  diseased  parts  of  the  foot  liiid  baiv.     These 


Caee  of  Sheep.  199 

are  cli'essed  with  a  strong  solutiou  of  suljahate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol), 
about  an  ounce  in  half  a  pint  of  warm  water.  The  feet  should  be 
wrapped  up  in  a  rag  smeai'ed  with  a  mixtm'e  of  pine  tar  and  lard 
melted  together.  Sometimes  sheep  become  lame  from  being  kept  on 
gravelly  or  stonv  pastiu'e  ;  this  is  not  foot-rot,  and  will  soon  be  reme- 
died by  a  change  to  softer  gi-ound.  This  caution  as  to  housing  the 
sheep  of  coiu-se  appUes  only  to  northern  cUmates.  In  the  South  and 
South-west,  where  the  cUmate  is  milder,  there  would  be  no  need  for 
such  housing,  simple  shelter  from  the  rain  being  enough.  As  a  guide 
to  this  we  might  say,  that  in  England,  where  the  thermometer  rai'ely 
falls  lower  than  ten  degrees  above  zero,  but  where  the  -n-inters  are  very 
rainy  (the  wet,  and  not  the  cold,  being  injurious),  the  sheep  are  kejjt 
out  in  ojjen  sheds  on  most  fai-ms  diuing  the  entu'e  ^\-inter.  The  ewes 
requii'e  cai-eful  watching  about  lambing  time,  as  in  many  cases  they 
may  then  need  assistance.  The  ewe  and  young  lamb  should  be 
sejsarated  from  the  flock,  and  put  into  a  box  stall  or  a  jien  in  some 
convenient  jilace,  where  they  can  be  kept  warm,  gi'eat  care  being 
taken  to  remove  anj'  wool  that  should  be  on  the  udder,  so  that  the 
young  lamb  can  catch  the  teats  easily  without  any  obstruction.  This 
may  not  often  be  necessai'v,  but  requii-es  looking  to  lest  it  may  be. 
The  tails  of  the  lambs  should  be  docked  when  eight  or  nine  days  old. 
Loss  often  occurs  when  the  tails  ai-e  left  on,  as  in  the  heat  of  summer 
on  good  jjastm-e  their  soft  di'ojjjjings  are  apt  to  adhere  to  the  tail, 
and  in  a  few  days  the  sheej)  will  become  fly-blown  and  maggoty,  and 
if  not  relieved  death  will  ensue.  The  tails  axe  docked  at  about 
two  inches  from  the  laimp.  The  skin  is  drawn  back  by  the  fingers  as 
on  the  finger  of  a  glove  and  a  cUp  mth  a  joair  of  shai-j)  sheep  shears 
divides  the  taU  ■^^■ithout  trouble  and  with  very  little  pain.  A  pinch  of 
copperas  wiU  stop  the  bleeding.  "VMiere  flocks  of  100  or  over  are 
kept,  they  should  be  left  to  the  cai-e  of  an  inteUigent  boy  or  man. 

One  of  the  most  troublesome  pests  in  the  care  of  sheep  is  the  tick, 
which  ai'e  often  on  the  ewes  at  lambing  time,  and  ■will  soon  reach  the 
young  lambs,  and  it  is  impossible  to  have  them  gi'ow  and  im2irove  as 
they  should  do  while  they  ai-e  infested  with  this  insect.  A  good 
remedy  is  to  dip  the  sheep  in  tobacco  water  made  to  about  the 
strength  and  color  of  strong  tea.  Another  pest  to  sheep  and  which 
sometimes  desti-oys  whole  flocks  in  a  miserable  manner  is  the  scab 
mite,  which  bun-ows  in  the  skin  and  produces  the  disease  kno^\-n  as 
scab.  The  wool  of  a  scabby  sheep  falls  off  or  becomes  matted  on  the 
skin,  in  the  crasts  and  scabs  which  ai'e  formed  of  the  matter  exuded 
by  reason  of  the  in-itation  caused  bj'  these  pests.  The  remedy  is  to 
dip  the  sheep  in  strong  hot  tobacco  water  as  above  mentioned,  with 
some  sulphur  added.     The  quantities  are  one  jiound  of  coai'se  tobacco. 


200 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


or  one  and  one-half  of  tlie  waste  stems,  to  foiu*  gallons  of  boiling 
■water,  fovu"  ounces  of  flowers  of  sulphur-  being  well  stiired  in.  "When 
the  solution  cools  to  about  120  degi'ees  the  sheep  ai-e  dijjped  into  it  all 
over,  excejDt  the  head,  and  the  cmsts  ai'e  completely  broken  uj)  with  some 
rough  instrument,  a  com  cob  being  the  best  for  the  puii^ose.  As  this 
disease  is  exceedingly  contagious,  the  mitis  remaining  for  many 
months  upon  the  soil,  on  the  fences  aud  Widls,  where  the  sheep  rub 
themselves,  the  gi-eatest  cai'e  is  needed  to  prevent  the  infection  of 
healthy  sheep;  and  as  it  spreads  very  rapidly,  the  remedy  should  be 
appUed  at  the  eai'Uest  occasion  for  it.  The  sheds,  also,  ai'e  to 
be  cleansed  iu  the  same  manner  as  the  sheep.  Where  there  is  any 
reason  to  susjiect  the  presence  of  this  troublesome  pest  in  any  sheep 
introduced  to  a  healthy  flock,  the  new  comers  should  be  dipped  as  a 
precaution.  This  subject  is  more  fully  refeiTed  to  in  the  chapter  on 
"  TJie  Pests  of  the  Fai-m." 

Xo  flock  can  be  exjiected  to  do  well  without  a  well  aiTanged  and 
comfoi-table  shed  aud  a  di-y  yard.  No  other  animals  should  ever  be 
Ijermitted  to  run  \\"ith  the  sheep,  as  these  inoffensive  creatiu-es  cannot 
defend  themselves,  aud  ai'e  consequently  exposed  to  constant  attack 
and  injury.     The  shed  should  be  open  to  the  south  and  well  protected 


agiiinst  the 'north;  the  yaid  should  be  enclosed  with  a  dog-proof 
fence,  and  there  should  be  an  enclosed  bai-n  for  feeding  and  housing 
them  iu  severe  weather,  Avith  a  good  floor  for  sheai-ing.  The  accom- 
pam-ing  eugi-a%ing  gives  a  good  idea  of  a  convenient  yaixl,  sheds  and 
bai'n  for  this  pmpose. 


SWINE. 

Usually  the  keei>ing  of  hogs  iu  any  lai-ge  niuuber  on  the  f  ann  is  not 
profitable.  Like  many  other  things,  it  is  confined  to  sections  of  the 
country  where  it  is  made  a  speciiil  business.  Still,  it  is  well  on  most 
farms  at  least  to  have  a  few  to  eat  up  the  garbage,  or  the  offal  from 
the  daii-y,  and  I  v\-ill  endeavor  to  state  what  I  lieheve  is  the  best 
method  of  raising  them,  and  the  kinds  best  suited  for  the  pmi^oses  of 


Berkshire  Swine.  201 

the  average  farm.  I  have  bred  the  Cheshii'e,  Poland-China  and 
Chester  AMiite  hogs.  All  these  breeds  have  lai-ge  bone  and  a  gi'eat 
deal  of  offal,  and  I  found  that  they  were  not  profitable  and  abandoned 
them.  I  then  imported  the  White  SuffoLks,  which  jsroduced  more 
fat  than  any  other  hog  I  ever  raised.  They  ai'e  small  in  the  bone, 
vsdth  little  offal,  and  ai'e  quiet  and  easy  keepers,  while  the  Chester 
AMiites  seem  to  be  always  looking  for  more  feed,  and  are  never  con- 
tent, and  do  not  matui'e  until  two  or  three  yeai's  old,  and  then  their 
meat  brings  in  oui-  markets  two  or  three  cents  23er  j^ouud  less  than 
the  Suffolks.      I  next  imported  Berkshires,    in    1862.      These   were 


BERKseiRE;   Pill 


found  to  be  better  than  any  kind  previously  tried.  They  are  easy 
keepers,  make  much  lean  meat  with  the  fat,  and  mature  early. 
I  have  often  had  them  weigh,  when  dressed,  250  pounds  at  eight 
months  old.  Their  hams  and  shoulders,  when  2>roperly  eui-ed,  find  a 
ready  market  in  all  lai'ge  cities,  and  ai'e  of  such  superior  quality  that 
private  purchasers  often  order  them  from  our  farmers  here  six 
months  in  advance.  I  have  made  importations,  about  once  a  year,  of 
prize  Berkshires  from  England.  In  1869  I  imported  foiuteen  hogs,  a 
few  of  which  I  sold,  to  go  to  llissouri,  for  $600  each.  They  were 
exhibited  at  the  great  Pork  Packers'  Exhibition,  at  St.  Louis — in  1872, 
I  think  it  was — where  there  were  some  sixteen  hundi-ed  entries  of  all 
breeds,  from  Em'ope,  Canada  and  the  United  States,  and  these,  with 
their  progeny,  took  the  first  prize  on  boajf  and  sow;  fii-st  and  second 
prizes  on  sow  and  Utter  of  pigs;  first  prize  on  hogs  under  a  year  old, 
and  prize  on  pigs  under  six  months  old.  I  mention  these  facts  to 
show  the  superiority  of  the  breed,  because  these  animals  were  1  wrought 
into  competition  vnth  others  of  all  breeds,  and  of  coui-se  with  the  best 
specimens  of  them  which  could  be  procui-ed.     The  Berkshire  is  black 


202  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

in  botli  Liiii-  and  skin;  but  in  dressing,  the  black  skin  comes  off  with 
the  hair,  and  the  pork  ib-esses  jjerfectly  wliite.  The  hau-  is  fine  and 
glossy,  but  rather  thin,  jind  is  quit«  free  from  iiU  tendency  to  the 
■woolly  undercoat  which  is  so  much  disliked  in  piga  Tliere  is  a  white 
splash  on  the  face;  the  feet  are  white,  and  so  is  the  end  of  the  taiL 
These  pecuhar  nuu-ks  are  all  reproduced  very  exactly  in  the  pure  breed. 
The  eai-s  are  pricked  and  yery  small;  the  face  is  short  and  dished;  tlie 
neck  is  very  short  and  thick;  the  shoulders  broad;  tlie  sides  are  deep, 
and  the  hams  broad  and  tliick,  the  legs  being  very  short  and  the  bone 
hght  and  fine.  This  form  makes  the  very  best  ham  and  bacon  hog, . 
and  as  its  habit  is  to  make  a  hu'ge  proportion  of  lean  meat  to  the  fat 
produced,  and  to  ijroduce  more  meat  cm  the  same  feed  and  to  do  it 
more  quickly  than  any  other  breed,  and  the  meat  being  sweeter  and 
of  better  quality,  I  must  say  I  know  of  no  other  vai-iety  of  swine  that 
is  so  desii'able  for  the  fiu-mer  for  hams,  shoulders  and  bacon. 


POLAND-CHINA 


Next  to  the  Berkshii-e  conies  the  Poland-China,  which  is  quite 
populiU'  in  the  West,  where  pork  gi'owing  is  one  of  the  most  prominent 
indush-ies  of  the  f  anu  and  consumes  a  considerable  part  of  the  large  corn 
crop.  This  hog  is  mixed  white  and  black  in  color,  the  eai's  are  lopped, 
the  cai'cass  is  lai-ge  and  fat.  It  therefore  suits  the  pork  packers,  whose 
aim  is  fat  pork  for  packing,  rather  than  meaty  pork  for  <'>iring  for 
sides  and  baccm.  The  importance  of  good  lirecding  of  swine  is  appa- 
rent when  we  consider  that  about  ten  miUion  hogs  lU'e  packed  even' 
year  in  the  West  and  that  the  whole  stock  in  the  country  is  more  than 
forty  millions. 

There  is  another  black  breed  of  swine,  which  has  no  white  mai"k 
about  it,  and  which  is  jjopular  in  some  places.  This  is  the  Essex.  It 
is  not  as  good  a  bacon  hog  as  the  Berkshu'e,  although  it  is  excellent 
when  young  for  hght  pork.  When  full  gl•o^^^l  it  is  fat,  but  it  is  not 
lai-ge  enough  for  the  i)acker's  use.     Among  fiuTuers  who  jirefer  white 


Feeding  of  Swine.  203 

liogs,  the  lai'ge  Yorkshire  is  considered  as  profitable,  but  it  is  a  large 
feeder,  and  I  think  on  the  whole  if  the  Berkshire  were  kept  by 
farmers  more  extensively,  both  whoUy,  or  for  crossing  on  their  present 
mixed  stock,  that  the  value  of  tlieir  swine  would  be  doubled. 

There  is  nothing  sj^ecial  to  be  said  in  regaixl  to  the  feeding  of 
hogs,  excepting  that  when  young  they  should  not  be  overfed. 
I  feed  a  mixture  of  buttemiUk  and  bran  twice  a  day,  and  in  the 
winter  time  they  are  fed  cooked  roots  and  pea  meal,  which  is  one  of 
the  best  feeds  that  can  be  given.  The  sows  are  put  into  a  pen  a  week 
or  ten  days  before  theii"  time  for  f aiTowiug,  and  to  prevent  them  from 
eating  then-  pigs,  as  they  sometimes  do,  I  give  them  a  Httle  salt  ])ork, 
which  seems  to  have  the  effect  of  detening  them  from  doing  so. 
Perhaps  if  they  had  been  given  some  salt  jjreviously  they  would  not 
need  this.  There  is  but  little  bedding  left  in  the  pen  at  that  time,  and 
that  fine  and  short,  so  that  the  young  pigs  may  not  be  entangled  in  it; 
and  they  are  watched  closely.  The  pigs  are  left  as  ch-opped,  and  are 
then  jiut  into  a  box  or  basket,  and  as  soon  as  the  sow  recovers  they  are 
put  back  in  the  pen,  and  left  with  her;  but  she  requires  watching,  as. 
they  vnR  often  get  in  behind,  between  the  sow  and  the  wall  of  the 
pen,  and  get  crushed.  To  prevent  this  I  nail  a  rail  or  round  pole  a 
few  inches  from  the  Wiill,  and  a  few  inches  liigh.  The  pigs  ai-e  gen- 
erally left  with  the  sow  vmtill  six  or  eight  weeks  old,  when  they  are 
weaned  and  fed  with  a  little  new  milk  and  mush,  made  of  oat  me;il  and 
bran.  I  have  several  times  put  the  boai-  to  the  sow  the  thifd  day  after 
she  has  dropped  her  pigs.  By  this  there  is  time  saved,  as  we  can  get 
three  litters  in  a  year,  whereas  if  we  neglected  it  at  that  time,  the  sow 
probably  would  not  be  in  farrow  again  for  three  months.  It  is  my 
opinion  that  boars  should  never  be  used  longer  than  two  yeai's,  as 
they  become  vicious  and  dangerous. 

Q.  Without  taking  into  consideration  the  fancy  j)rices  at  which  these 
Berkshii'es  have  sold,  how  would  they  compare  in  profit  with  sheep? 

A.  I  think  they  ai'e  not  as  profitable  as  sheep.  The  wool  j)ays  for 
keeping  the  sheejD,  and  six  months  in  the  year  they  ai-e  on  j)astiu'e,  and 
requii-e  but  very  httle  cai'e,  while  the  hog  has  to  be  attended  to  twice 
daily  throughout  this  full  term,  and  unless  we  have  a  special  mai'ket 
for  hams  and  shoulders,  and  sides  of  bacon,  it  hardly  pays  to  raise 
hogs  here.  But  the  f  ai-mer  can  iU  afford  to  be  •without  them,  as  they 
are  used  to  root  among  the  manui'e  and  tui-n  it  over,  and  generally 
get  theu-  hving  upon  what  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

"When  pork  is  prepared  for  sale  in  the  form  of  hams  and  bacon,  it 
must  be  home  cured,  because  then  we  get  the  profit  in  this  work. 
A  hog  should  not  be  fed  for  twelve  hom-s  before  slaughtering.  When 
it  is  scalded  to  remove  the  hair  it  is  necessaiy  to  avoid  over  scalding. 


204  How  THK  Farm  Pays. 

or  the  hair  heeomes  set  and  cajinot  be  scraped  off.  Tliis  of  course 
injures  it  for  Side  to  private  custoniei-s  or  to  the  best  dealers.  I  find 
180  degi-ees  to  be  the  proper  temperatiue  for  the  water.  The  carcass 
should  hanpr  where  it  wiU  not  bo  ft-ozeu  for  twent y-foui-  hours.  "NMiere  a 
f  aiTuer  has  ten  or  twenty  hogs  to  dress  diuing  tlie  season,  he  will  find  it 
convenient  to  have  a  shed  or  ])lace  jn-oijerly  jn-ovided  and  furnished 
for  this  work,  with  a  boiler  and  scalding  vat. 

My  method  of  curing  is  as  foUows:  "\Mien  the  meat  has  been  properly 
cut  up  it  is  well  rubbed  with  salt  and  left  on  the  benches  to  drain  for 
twenty-fom-  hours.  This  removes  the  moistm-e  from  it.  Seven  and 
one-half  poimds  of  salt,  two  siud  one-half  jjounds  of  brown  sugai-,  four 
oimces  of  sidtjjeter,  ai-e  then  put  in  as  much  water  as  will  dissolve 
them  completely,  and  two  ovmces  of  cayenne  pepper  is  added.  The 
liquid  is  boiled  a  few  minutes  and  skimmed  and  set  a-side  to  cool. 
Meanwhile  the  meat  is  rubbed  vriih  a  mixtui-e  of  the  same,  and  is 
closely  i^acked  in  the  baiTels  or  tubs,  and  the  pickle  is  poui'ed  over  it 
until  it  is  covered.  In  six  weeks  it  is  ciu'ed  and  is  ready  for  smoking. 
It  is  smoked  with  hickoi-y  brush  wood  or  corn  cobs,  or  both,  one  hour 
a  day  for  ten  days.  The  fii-e  is  made  outside  of  the  smoke-house  and 
the  smoke  is  earned  in  by  a  flue,  so  that  it  is  cooled  and  does  not 
wanu  the  meat.  After  ten  days  the  meat  is  rubbed  vdih  pepper  and 
is  ready  for  siile,  or  if  to  be  kept  should  be  packed  in  close  boxes 
with  wheat  chaff  or  cut  straw,  and  kejjt  in  a  di-y,  cool  place. 

Hams  and  bacon  are  frequently  injured  by  a  small  beetle,  wliich 
lays  its  eggs  iipon  the  meat,  and  when  these  hatch  the  small  worms 
bore  into  the  meat  and  harbor  near  the  bone.  This  insect  is  a  vaiiety 
of  weevil,  a  small  brown  beetle,  and  the  lai'vaj  are  smsdl  white  grabs, 
which  are  commonly  Cidled  skippers.  It  is  very  important  that  the 
meat  should  be  protected  against  this  j^est,  or  it  may  be  damaged  so 
as  to  spoil  it  for  side  and  also  injui'e  it  for  use.  There  are  several 
ways  of  doing  this.  One  of  the  best  and  the  most  convenient  is  to  rub 
the  meat  well  with  gi-ound  jjepper,  and  then  pack  it  in  boxes  in  oat 
or  wheat  chaff  or  in  finely  cut  hay;  a  few  inches  in  depth  should  be 
covered  over  the  meat,  and  the  box  closed  tightly.  It  should  be  kept 
in  a  dry,  cool  place.  Tlie  dry  packing  will  absorb  all  the  moisture, 
and  prevent  the  meat  fi-om  becoming  moldy. 

FARM  BlILDIXGS. 

The  styles  of  f  ai-m  buildings  will  of  course  vary  according  to  the 
necessities  of  the  fanner,  the  amount  of  money  he  is  wiUing  or  able 
to  invest,  or  other  conditions.  As  I  have  heretofore  done  in  our 
convei-sations  on  other  farm  work,  I  ^^■ill  give  my  o^vn  practice  in  tliis 


Aerangemest  of  Farm  Buildings.  205 

matter,  which  for  the  special  purposes  required,  after  an  experience 
of  nearly  thirty  years,  I  have  found  to  be  the  best.  "When  wanted 
for  other  purposes  than  dairy  farming  they  must  be  modified  accord- 
ingly. In  yeai's  past,  when  I  leased  farms,  I  always  had  the  bad  for- 
tune to  get  poor  builduigs,  and  I  have  often  had  to  put  up  sheds  at 
my  own  cost.  My  object  always  has  been  to  make  a  court  or  square 
suiToimded  on  all  sides  with  buildings,  with  one  opening  into  the 
yai'd,  so  that  it  could  be  easily  locked  up  at  night,  that  if  any  animal 
should  by  chance  get  out  of  its  pen  it  would  be  found  in  the  yai'd  in 
tlie  morning.  The  homestead  which  I  purchased  tlu-ee  yeai's  ago  was 
bai-e  of  buUdings  and  open  to  the  streets.  I  first  gxaded  the  yard 
into  a  hoUow  square,  sloping  on  all  sides  to  the  centre,  where  I  placed 
the  cistern  or  cesspool  for  liquid  manure,  as  before  described.  On 
the  south  side  of  this  j'ai'd,  running  east  and  west,  I  built  my  cow 
stable,  10.5  feet  in  leng-th,  twentj-thi-ee  feet  wide  and  sixteen-foot 
jjosts.  This  is  divided  into  thii-ty  stanchions  or  stalls,  three  and  one- 
half  feet  wide,  with  a  manger  running  in  front.  Water  is  sujiplied  to 
the  manger  from  a  tank  in  the  bam,  and  is  can-ied  along  the  range  of 
stiiUs  by  an  inch  and  a  quarter  iron  pipe,  having  thi-ee  faucets  to  let 
the  water  into  the  manger.  Hose  attachments  are  provided  to  cany 
the  water  to  any  point  in  the  bam  in  case  of  fii'e.  In  front  of  the 
manger  is  a  sjjace  of  nine  feet  for  a  feeding  passage,  in  which  there  is 
a  large  trough,  six  by  thi'ee  feet,  for  mixing  bran  or  slops  in  the 
summer.  Just  behind  the  stalls  is  a  trench,  fifteen  inches  wide  and 
eight  inches  deep,  where  all  the  manure  falls.  Behind  this  is  a  walk 
of  five  feet  for  the  convenience  of  the  milkers  and  for  bedding  and 
cleaning  out  the  stables.  This  large  space  also  gives  ample  room  for 
the  milk  cans  at  milking  time.  On  the  front  side  of  the  stable,  and 
in  front  of  the  cows,  ai'e  several  large  windows,  to  give  sunlight  and 
air  when  desu'ed.  There  are  also  windows  facing  the  yard,  and  two 
lai'ge  doors,  by  which  the  cows  enter  the  stables,  into  which  the  carts 
are  backed  when  carrying  in  bedding  and  taking  away  the  manure. 
The  smallest  boy  can  put  the  thirty  cows  into  the  stable  in  ten 
minutes,  as  they  are  all  trained  to  go  into  their  own  stalls  without 
confusion.  This  training  saves  a  gxeat  deal  of  trouble,  and  is  a  special 
point  in  the  management  of  cows.  The  method  of  fastening  them  in 
the  stalls  is  simjjly  by  means  of  an  upright  oak  scantling,  two  by 
three  inches,  held  in  the  bottom  of  the  stall  by  a  pin,  and,  when  the 
cow  thrusts  her  head  thi-ough  the  opening  above  the  manger,  this 
upright  stick  is  pushed  up  in  place,  and  a  ^^iece  of  the  same  size  is 
dropped  down  behind  it  on  the  top  raU  of  the  manger  and  holds  it 
securely.  This  space  has  a  width  at  the  top  of  about  two  feet  when 
open,  and  when  closed  is  about  eight  inches  wide  at  both  top  and 


206  How  THK  Farm  Pats. 

bottom,  so  that  the  cows  are  fastened  securely  and  quickly,  thus  doing 
away  wth  chains  and  halters.  The  second  floor  of  the  bam  being 
seven  and  one  half  feet  hiyh  fjives  ample  room  for  ventilation,  and  this 
floor  win  hold  seventy-five  tons  of  hay. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  square,  miming  north  and  south,  is  another 
stable  100  feet  long.  This  is  eight  feet  high,  built  of  codiu-  jjosts  and 
rough  boards,  and  contains  ten  box  stiiUs;  a  few  of  them,  of  liU'ger 
size,  ai'e  used  for  the  bulls.  The  others  ai'e  eight  by  ten,  and  ai-e 
used  for  cows  at  calving  times.  lu  fi'out  is  the  feeding  manger  or 
ti'ough.  In  front  of  this  is  a  walk  of  four*  feet,  where  tlie  feed  is 
supphed  to  the  manger.  The  roof  is  made  with  hea^y  timbers  and 
rough  boai-ds.  On  this  are  built  the  stacks  of  com  fodder,  or  corn 
stalks,  to  a  height  of  about  fourteen  feet.  The  stack  is  built  over  the 
sides  of  the  stable  some  two  feet.  It  is  made  so  as  to  run  to  a  shiu-p 
lidge  at  the  top.  In  this  way  we  get  a  stack  of  corn  fodder  100 
feet  in  length,  sixteen  feet  -nnde  and  an  average  height  of  U  n  feet, 
which  probably  contains  seventy-five  or  eighty  tons,  thus  serving 
the  pui-poses  of  a  roof,  and  a  convenient  place  to  stack  fodder 
diuing  the  winter.  WTien  the  corn  fodder  is  fed  off,  the  board  roof 
of  course  carries  off  the  water. 

On  the  side  of  the  square  facing  north  is  the  main  bam  for  horses, 
limning  east  and  west.  In  this  barn  are  the  hay-lofts,  threshing 
machine,  room  for  tools,  seed  room,  offices,  etc. ;  here  too  is  the  horse 
power  for  two  or  four  horses,  as  may  be  requii-ed.  "With  this  we  pulp 
the  roots,  cut  corn  fodder,  etc.  On  the  west  side  of  the  squsu'c  run- 
ning north  and  south  is  another  stable  seventy  feet  long,  twenty  f  jet 
wide  and  foiuieen  foot  posts,  which  contains  calf  boxes,  sheep  pens 
and  pig  pens,  and  at  the  south-west  comer  the  dairy.  By  this  man- 
ner of  erecting  the  building  I  get  a  hollow  squai-e  containing  a  quai-- 
ter  of  an  acre,  which  not  only  affords  a  shelter  for  the  animals,  and 
is  convenient  for  harnessing,  and  all  other  barn-yard  work,  but  it 
keeps  the  whole  building  imder  the  eye  of  the  owner.  This  is  a 
very  important  matter,  because  he  can  take  a  run  out,  the  coldest 
night,  around  the  whole  place  of  neaiiy  GOO  feet  in  a  few  minutes, 
and  see  that  everything  is  in  proper  condition;  whereas  if  the  bams 
Avere  scattered  about,  as  thej'  often  are,  it  would  take  gi'eater  time  to 
make  this  round  of  insjiection,  and  would  be  attended  by  more  expo- 
sui-e,  for  in  this  com-t  there  is  shelter  no  matter  how  the  wind  Ijlows. 
Another  advantage  in  this  manner  of  building  the  Ixirns,  is  that  the 
rears  ai-e  aU  placed  so  that  no  doors  open  to  the  outside,  which  not 
only  affords  security  against  the  possibiUty  of  tlm  animals  breaking 
loose  in  the  night,  and  getting  out,  but  also  prevents  the  chance  of 
tramps  getting  into  the  stables  or  barns,  and  housing  for  the  night, 


Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Farm  Buildinqs.  207 

•which  they  cannot  well  do  unless  they  scale  the  gate  from  the  outside 
and  force  an  tntrance. 

Q.  Wbat  do  you  consider  the  best  method  of  constructing  and 
arranging  f ai-m  buildings  ? 

A.  That  is  an  extensive  subject  and  admits  of  a  great  many  con- 
siderations. Different  kinds  of  stock  require  different  accom- 
modations, and  the  management  of  the  farm  calls  for  a  large  variety 
of  buildings  suitable  to  the  particular  needs  of  it.  On  grain  farms  a 
barn  is  requked  of  great  capacity  to  store  the  gi-ain,  and  having  a 
capacious  floor  for  threshing  and  cleaning  it.  This  method  of 
farming,  however,  can  scarcely  be  followed  any  more  in  the  Eastern 
part  of  the  couutiy,  because  the  cheats  grain  of  the  far  West  and  the  low 
freights  have  made  it  unprofitable  ;  and  with  the  system  of  agri- 
cultui'e  of  course  the  special  kind  of  buildings  must  go.  Live  stock 
feeding,  dairying  and  sheep  rearing  must  be  followed  in  the  East,  and 
in  parts  of  the  West,  swine  feeding,  with  corn  growing;  and  each 
of  these  special  branches  of  farming  calls  for  different  kinds  of 
buildings.  As  to  the  construction  of  the  buildings,  I  approve  of  cheap 
wooden  structures,  easily  built  and  easily  renewed.  A  bai-n  or  stable 
is  necessarily  always  fiUed  with  combustible  material,  and  a  stone 
and  iron  barn  built  at  gi-eat  cost  could  not  be  made  fire-proof  and 
would  be  ruined,  although  it  might  not  be  consumed,  if  the  interior 
was  burned  out,  so  that  as  far  as  regards  danger  from  fixe,  a  cheap 
wooden  building  is  equally  as  safe  as  a  more  costlj'  stone  one  ;  and 
the  cheaper  one  can  be  renewed  ten  times  for  the  cost  of  the  more 
exj)ensive  one.  I  have  built  cattle  sheds  which  were  comfortable 
and  convenient,  something  in  the  style  of  my  present  buildings, 
which  cost  less  than  §10  for  each  head  of  cattle  in  them. 

These  plain  and  yet  substantial  buildings  are  much  safer  from  fire 
than  a  large  structure  in  which  hay  and  fodder  are  stored  over  the 
cattle,  and  in  which  valuable  animals  worth,  perhaps,  $.50,000  ai'e  kept 
fastened  in  such  a  way,  that  if  the  barn  takes  tire  they  cannot  pos- 
sibly be  saved.  It  is  only  recently  that  a  fine  herd  of  Jersey  cattle 
were  thus  bxuTied  in  a  large  and  costly  barn,  from  which  it  was  im- 
possible to  get  them  out  because  of  the  smoke.  The  barn  cost 
several  thousand  doUars,  and  I  know  of  other  barns  that  have  cost 
more  than  twenty-five  thousand  and  some  much  more  than  that,  but 
which  are  not  so  convenient  as  sheds  costing  only  $10  per  head,  and 
which  are  perfectly  comfortable,  and  fi-om  which,  in  case  of  fire, 
every  animal  coiild  be  let  loose  and  driven  out  with  complete  safety. 
The  annexed  drawings  show  how  these  sheds  are  constiiicted. 
The  first  gives  the  outside  end  view,  the  second  a  section  shovnng 
the  interior  arrangement  of  the  stall,  and  the  third  the  ground  plan 


208 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


of  the  stalls.     Each  cow  has  a  loose  stall  to  herself,  in  which  she  may 
be  left  unfastened,  thus  avoiding  the  risk  of  being  caught  in  the 


OCTSIPE  END  VIEW  OF  CATTLE  SHED. 


halter  at  any  time,  and  getting  thrown  down,  and  in  case  of  fire  the 
doors  may  be  all  thrown  open  in  a  few  minutes  and  every  animal 


SECTION   OF  STALL  INSIDE. 


diiven  out  to  a  place  of  safety.     The  shed  is  sixteen  feet  wide,  giving 
a  stall  nine  feet  in  the  clear  and  seven  feet  wide,  and  a  feeding  pas- 


5  FT. 

WIDE 

sage,  in  fi-ont  of  the  stalls,  five  feet  wide.     Each  stall  has  a  feeding 
trough  with  a  shute  through  which  the  food  can  be  put  with  a  scoop, 


Convenient  Cow  Stalls.  209 

from  a  feeding  tinick,  in  -wliicli  it  is  brought  from  the  feed  room, 
where  it  is  pref)ared.  A  long  staple  of  half-inch  iron  rod  is  fastened 
to  each  side,  in  which  a  steel  ring  and  chain  may  be  iixed,  and  one 
cow  can  then  be  fastened  on  each  side,  and  two  cows  kejit  in  each 
stall  if  desired.  A  double  door  is  made  in  the  front  of  each  stall, 
four  feet  wide,  and  in  wann  weather  the  upper  half  may  be  left  open. 
A  long  sliding  window  is  made  at  each  end  of  the  shed,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, other  sliding  windows  are  made  in  the  rear,  opening  into  the 
feeding  alley.  These  windows  jDrovide  for  amj^le  ventilation  and 
light;  and  light  is  as  necessary  as  fi-esh  air  for  the  welfare  of  cows. 
It  is  well  to  have  close  shutters  to  shde  over  these  windows  to  darken 
the  stable  for  the  piu'jiose  of  keeping  out  flies  in  the  worst  of  the 
season,  so  that  the  cattle  maj'  rest  comfortably  in  the  heat  of  the  day. 
The  floors  of  the  stalls  should  be  of  earth,  and  graded  to  the  rear, 
where  a  gutter  should  be  made  to  carry  off  the  di-aiuage  into  the 
drains,  which  conduct  it  to  the  middle  of  the  yard,  where  it  is  absorbed 
by  the  manure  which  is  tlu'own  into  a  heap  there.  Sheds  of  this 
kind  can  be  jjut  up  for  about  one  doUar  and  a  half  a  ranning  foot,  in 
a  plain  rough  fashion,  and  as  much  more  money  can  be  spent  upon 
them  as  the  owner's  purse  will  allow.  Paint  is  thrown  away  upon  fai-ru 
yard  buildings,  excepting  for  the  sake  of  ajipearance.  I  have  seen 
wooden  buildings,  unjiainted,  eighty  years  old,  in  which  the  boards 
had  been  worn  but  a  very  Httle,  and  if  these  had  been  painted  once  in 
five  years  the  jiaiuting  would  have  cost  in  all  five  times  as  much  as 
the  buildings.  For  painting  farm  buildings  the  common  brown 
iron  paint  and  raw  huseed  oil  I  think  is  the  best;  it  is  very  durable, 
is  fire-proof,  and  is  not  soiled  by  use.  The  color,  too,  is  agi-eeable, 
as  a  contrast  to  the  gi-een  of  the  trees  and  the  fields. 


HAY  BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 

Barns  for  storing  hay  and  fodder  are  necessai-y  where  much  stock 
is  kept,  and  these  buildings  may  be  constructed  verj'  cheajDly.  High 
barns  require  heavy  timber  and  firm  framing  and  bracing,  both  to 
resist  the  winds  and  the  pressure  of  the  haj-  inside.  Where  land 
costs  no  more  than  it  does  in  this  country  it  is  poor  economy  to  build 
high  barns.  Lighter,  broader  and  longer  buildings  can  be  buUt  more 
cheaply  and  seiwe  every  useful  pui-pose.  The  engravings  rejDresent 
two  kinds  of  hay  barns  or  sheds;  one  of  large  capacity  for  a  good 
many  head  of  stock;  the  other  intended  for  smaller  farms,  and  holding 
nearly  one  ton  of  hay  to  the  running  foot  when  fiUed  to  the  top.  The 
former,  if  thirty  feet  wide  with  sixteen-feet  posts,  and  the  self-support- 


210 


How  THE  Farm  P-wa 


ing  roof  bere  shown,  will  hold  3,000  pounds  of  hay  to  the  runmnp; 
foot  when  filled.  It  has  a  clear  sjjace  over  the  beams  for  the  use  of 
a  horse  fork  or  hay  slings,  and  by  haNong  large  doors  for  unloading 


1,000  pounds  of  hay  may  be  unloaded  with  a  sling  at  once.  These 
slings  ai'e  preferable  to  hay  forks,  as  they  carry  a  much  larger  load, 
and  can  be  used  for  com  fodder  as  well  as  for  har.     The  engranng 


FRAME  FOB  HAY  tjUED. 


shows  a  single  bent  of  the  frame,  and  by  adding  as  manj'  bents  as 
may  be  required,  the  baf  n  may  be  made  as  long  as  desu-able.  With  the 
present  useful  machinei-y  for  unloading  haj'  a  bam  may  be  made  of 


Horse  Barxs.  211 

any  length,  if  unloading  doors  are  provided  within  fifty  feet  of  each 
other.  This  roof  is  a  very  sti-ong  one,  as  it  cannot  sag,  and  if  properly 
l)raced  and  bolted  to  the  plates,  cannot  sjoread.  A  thi-ee-quarter-inch 
iron  bolt  should  be  put  through  each  rafter  and  the  plate  on  which  it 
Tests,  and  a  rod  of  the  same  size  put  thi-ough  the  top  beam  and  ralter 
as  shown  to  serve  as  a  brace;  a  brace  may  be  used  as  well,  but  the 
rod  shovdd  he  close  up  to  the  brace  and  the  nut  at  each  end  should 
be  screwed  up  tight. 

The  smaller  shed  is  made  of  posts  set  in  the  ground,  twenty  feet 
apart  one  way,  and  sixteen  feet  apart  the  other,  making  bents  twenty 
feet  wide,  placed  sixteen  feet  apart.  Two  cross  girts  may  be  bolted 
to  the  posts,  which  is  stronger  than  fi-aming  them  in,  and  two  long 
braces  should  be  bolted  in  to  stiffen  the  building.  Roof  "braces  are 
spiked  to  each  third  or  fourth  pau's  of  rafters  to  keep  these  fi'om 
spreading.  This  shed  needs  only  a  single  board  roof,  laid  closely,  and 
a  naiTow  batten  to  cover  each  joint,  as  the  steep  pitch  sheds  rain 
Tcry  easily. 


HORSE   BARNS. 

Stables  are  used  for  common  farm  horses,  but,  where  horses  are 
Tared,  barns  specially  arranged  for  them  are  necessar^y.  The  use  and 
value  of  farm  horses  are  often  gi'eatly  reduced  by  a  want  of  proper 
arrangements  for  stabling  them.  Any  kind  of  a  place  to  crowd  the 
poor  beasts  in  is  too  often  thought  good  enough,  and  the  air  in  some 
stables  is  so  bad  fi-om  filthy  floors  that  the  harness  is  often  rotted  by 
it.  A  horse's  lungs  and  eyes  cannot  fail  to  suffer  in  such  an  atmos- 
phere, when  tanned  leather  and  cawiage  varnish  ai-e  sf)oiled.  No 
doubt  a  good  deal  of  disease  among  horses  is  due  to  this  cause. 
Another  common  fault  is  bad  light.  A  horse  sees  on  one  side  only 
"with  each  eye,  and  a  side  light  from  a  window  strains  the  ej'es 
unequally.  The  hght  should  come  into  a  stable  directly  in  front  of 
the  horse,  and  it  should  not  be  too  bright.  If  the  window  cannot  be 
on  the  north  side,  it  should  be  covered  with  hme-wash  to  mellow  the 
light;  but  the  stable  should  never  be  wholly  dark.  A  stable  should 
"be  airy  and  well  ventilated,  but  not  drafty;  a  draft  ui^on  a  horse  yet 
wai'm  with  work  will  surelj'  injure  him,  and,  if  it  does  nothing  worse, 
it  wUl  stiffen  him  for  a  few  days.  A  few  such  mistakes  will  ruin  any 
animal. 

The  feeding  arrangements  for  a  horse  stable  should  be  as  follows: 
A  hay  rack  above  the  head  is  objectionable,  as  the  dust  from  it  is  apt 
to  be  breathed  and  cause  disease  of  the  lungs.     A  deep  manger  from 


212  How  THE  F.uiM  Pays. 

a  foot  above  tlie  ground  ami  three  feet  liigh,  is  the  best  for  hay,  and 
a  grain  box  at  one  side  of  the  stall  serves  for  grain  or  cut  feed.  The 
grain  box  should  be  sixteen  inches  square  at  the  top  and  sloping  the 
same  as  the  manger,  and  at  least  twelve  inches  deep.  The  manger 
should  be  eighteen  inches  in  width  at  the  top,  uaiTowing  to  twelve 
inches  at  the  bottom.  The  stall  shoidd  be  live  feet  wide.  A  hoi-se 
cannot  rest  comfortably  in  one  naiTower,  and  if  it  is  wider  the  animal 
may  try  to  roll  in  it  and  get  fast.  The  halter  should  not  be  any 
longer  than  wiU  bring  the  end  of  it  to  a  foot  from  the  ground,  and 
the  loose  end  should  run  through  a  strong  ring  bolt  and  have  a 
block  of  hard  wood  fastened  to  the  end  of  it,  so  that  the  slack  of  the 
halter  may  always  be  taken  up  by  the  weight. 

The  Hoor  of  the  stall  is  best  made  of  concrete  mixed  with  gas 
tai-  and  rammed  down  hard.  Such  a  floor  will  hold  no  moisture  and 
always  be  clean.  An  excellent  floor  is  made  of  round  stone  laid  in  a 
pavement,  and  filled  between  with  cement  well  rammed,  and  then 
satm-ated  with  hot  gas  tar.  No  veiiuiu  wiU  attack  such  a  floor  and  it 
■wiU  always  be  cool  for  the  horses'  feet.  For  horses  it  is  well  to  have 
a  floor  of  wooden  bai-s  laid  lengthwise  and  an  inch  ajjaii,  to 
provide  di'ainage  and  keep  the  horse  clean,  and  a  drainage 
gutter  made  shallow  and  ninning  lengthwise  of  the  stable  is 
necessary  for  cleanliness.  Once  a  week  the  stall  antl  gutter 
should  be  washed  down  with  a  pailful  of  water  to  cleanse  and 
sweeten  it. 

A  bai-u  for  a  horse-breeding  farm,  where  valuable  animals  ai-e 
kept,  should  be  made  thuiy-sis  feet  wide,  with  an  alley  way  through 
the  middle  twelve  feet  wide,  and  stalls  twelve  feet  squai'e  on  each 
side,  opening  into  the  alley  way.  A  small  window,  protected  by  iron 
gratings,  and  made  to  swng  on  pivots,  should  Vie  made  for  each  stall 
for  hght  and  ventilation,  and  it  should  be  placed  six  feet  from  the 
floor.  A  shding  door  should  be  made  in  the  stall  into  the  alley  for 
feeding,  and  double  doors,  the  upper  one  of  which  should  ojien 
singly,  sliould  be  made  to  open  into  the  alley  way.  It  is  very  con- 
venient to  have  feeding  slmtes  fi'om  the  floor  above,  to  send  down 
hay  and  gi-ain  into  the  manger  and  feed  box.  The  hay  shute  should 
be  a  little  larger  below  than  above,  so  that  the  hay  will  not  pack  in 
it,  and  the  grain  shute  should  have  a  sjoout  at  the  bottom  leading 
into  the  feed  box.  The  best  bedding  for  horses  is  sawdust;  but 
the  dried  peat,  now  being  introduced,  is  equally  good,  and  so 
far  as  its  value  for  manure  is  concerned,  is  better  than  saw- 
dust. The  floor  above  the  stalls  should  be  laid  close  with  matched 
boards. 


/ 


Sheep  Baens. 


213 


SHEEP  BARNS. 

Success  with  sheep  depends  in  a  great  measui-e  upon  having  proper 
tarns  or  sheds  for  them.  Sheep  culture  will,  no  doubt,  greatly 
increase  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  and,  as  the  improved  breeds 
are  more  widely  introduced,  a  better  system  of  keeijuig  them,  with 
proportionately  better  profit,  will  be  adopted.  Few  farms  are  well 
provided  ^vith  accommodations  for  slieej),  exceptiog  where  the  fann 
is  devoted  to  them,  and  even  then  many  large  flocks  suffer  for  want  of 


SHEEP  SHED  FOE  A  SJIALL  FLOCE 


proper  conveniences.  This  is  especially  injurious  to  the  lambs,  many 
of  which  are  lost  from  accidents  which  might  have  been  avoided. 
Sheep  requu'e  j)ure  air  and  dry  lodging  chiefly.  Their  fleece 
protects  them  fi-om  cold  in  the  severest  weather,  and  thej'  know  how 
to  keep  warm  by  huddUng  or  bunching  together  when  necessary. 
A  close  shed  is  therefore  not  healthful,  because  when  sheep  get  over- 
lieated  they  are  very  apt  to  suffer  from  lung  diseases,  and  pneu- 
monia is  one  of  the  most  fatal  disorders  to  sheep.  One  night's  over- 
heating in  a  close  shed  -will  cause  sheeji  to  nin  at  the  nose,  which  is 
the  first  step  towards  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  A  good  tight  roof, 
with  an  open  front  on  the  south  side,  placed  on  the  north  side  of  a 
dry  yard,  makes  a  sufficient  shelter  for  a  flock.  For  a  small  flock  the 
yard  and  shed  shown  in  the  above  engraving  is  recommended  by 
Henry  Stewait,  the  author  of  the  "  Shepherd's  Manual, "  in  that 
work,  fi'om  which  this  illustration  is  boiTowed. 

A  barn  for  a  larger  flock,  designed  by  the  late  Hon.  Geo.   Geddes, 
of  Onondaga,  N.  Y.  (see  engravings'),  is  made  with  the  pens  eight 


214 


How  THK  Faksi  Pays. 


feet  bigh;  the  i^osts  are  eight  feet  apart  and  swinging  doors  are  tixecl 
between  each  i)air  of  posts.  The  doors  are  double,  one  hung 
above  the  other,  so  that  the  upper  or  lower  one,  or  both,  can  be 
closed  when  desu-ed.  The  doors  are  hung  upon  pins  titte<l  into  the 
ends,  as  shown.  Some  of  the  pens  may  be  enclosed  and  kept  for 
separating  f  wes  from  the  flock  at  lambing  time.     The  upjier  part  of 


SHEEP  BAItM  FOIt  A  1.A11GE  FLOCK. 


the  bam  is  kept  for  fodder,  and  the  interior  arrangement  and  the 
ground  plan  are  here  shown.  In  the  rear  of  the  barn,  at  A,  is  a. 
root  cellar.  At  C,  C,  is  the  feeding  passage,  over  whicli  are  hay 
shutes  to  cany  the  hay  into  the  rack,  D,  which  opens  into  the  stable 
by  lathed  bars  placed  up  and  down.  The  bars  are  not  more  than 
three  inches  ai^aii,  to  prevent  the  sheep  from  pushing  their  heads 


through  and  tearing  the  wool  from  the  necks.  A  feeding  ti'ough,  E, 
for  grain  or  chopjied  roots,  is  under  the  hay  rack,  and  is  opened  or  closed 
by  a  falling  door  or  shutter,  whicli,  when  open,  is  held  by  cords  and 
hooks  to  the  sloping  bottom  of  the  hay  rack.  A  stair-case  or  steps, 
B,  leads  fi'om  the  feeding  passage  to  the  hay  floor,  and  the  hay 
should  be  so  an'anged  as  to  leave  a  passage-way  above.  The  hay  floor 
should  be  of  matched  boards  to  prevent  dust  and  chaff  from, 
dropping  onto  the  sheep  and  getting  into  the  wool. 

Although  abundant  ventilation  is  provided  for  by  the  ample  dooi-s 
in  front  of  the  shed,  it  will,  nevertheless,  bo  advisable  to  have  at  least 
two  air-shafts  from  the  stable  to  the  roof  These  should  be  about  four 
by  six  feet,  and  made  of  matched  boards,  some  of  which  should  be 
hung  on  hinges  and  fastened  by  bolts,  that  they  may  be  used  to  pass 


Sectional  View  of  Sheep  Bakn. 


215 


hay  cIo-«Ti  to  the  stable  floor  at  times.     These  shutes  should  be  two 
inches  larger  each  way  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  so  that  the  hay 


SECTIONAI,  VIEW  OF  SHEEP  ! 


will  not  lodge  in  them.     The  feed  passage  communicates  with  the  root 
cellar  by  two  or  three  doors,  as  may   be  convenient.     With  a  cellar 


GROUND  PLAN 


arranged  as  on  this  plan  the  method  of  preserving  corn  fodder  by 
ensilage  may  be  very  easily  practiced  if  desired. 


216 


How  THE  Faum  Pays. 


It  may  be  that  ensUage  -will  be  found  more  desirable  for  sLeep  than 
for  cows,  if  fed  in  moderation,  but  roots  are  quite  free  from  objection 
of  anj'  kind,  and  as  they  can  be  grown,  as  stated  in  a  pre-^ious  chapter, 
quite  as  easily  as  ensilage,  and  require  no  expensive  packing  in  a  silo, 
no  doubt  roots  will  never  whoUj'  give  way  to  ensilage,  even  for  sheep. 
It  might  be  well  to  mention  that  most  roots  are  best  cut  in  thin  slices 
for  sheep,  although  mangels  being  of  a  soft  texture,  are  easilj'  eaten 
when  given  whole. 

For  sheep  keeping  on  a  large  scale  an  extensive  shed  an-anged  as 
here  shown  is  convenient.  AVhen  sheep  are  herded  on  the  open 
plains  or  jirairie,  there  are  often  losses  bj'  wolves,  which  pick  up  out- 
lying sheep  or  lambs,  unless  the  shepherd  and  his  dogs  are  on  the  alert 


SHEEP  ItAXCHE. 


It  is  safer  to  have  the  tiocTc  penned,  and  such  a  j-ard  as  this  would  be 
convenient,  providing  not  only  safety,  but  shelter  in  case  of  stonus. 
For  winter  use  some  jirotection  of  this  kind  is  indispensable.  The 
range  of  sheds  here  shown  was  made  for  a  sheej)  rauche  in  western 
Kansas.  The  walls  were  built  of  sods  cut  from  the  jjrairie;  on  the 
inside,  the  roof  was  supported  by  posts  set  in  the  ground ;  the  roof 
was  made  of  cedar  jjoles  covered  with  thatch  of  coarse  marsh  gi-ass 
bound  down  with  taiTed  rope.  The  side  sheds  were  fiOO  feet  long 
and  the  end  one  300  feet;  all  were  thuty  feet  wide,  thus  gi^■ing  over 
an  acre  of  ground  under  the  roof  with  a  yard  enclosed  of  nearly  five 
acres.  A  Hock  of  nearly  4,000  sheep  found  ample  accommodations  in 
this  yard  and  sheds  during  the  winter.  The  supply  of  hay  for  occa- 
sional feeding  in  the  winter  was  stacked  in  a  long  row  down  the  centre 
of  the  yard  and  gave  additional  shelter  to  the  sheep  fi'om  driving 
stoi-ms.  If  such  shelters  as  this  were  provided  on  the  plains  and 
exposed  prairie  fai-ms,  thei-e  would  be  veiy  few  losses  in  the 
flocks. 


Pig  Pens. 


217 


In  all  these  aiTangements  for  sheep  it  is  necessarj-  to  avoid  having 
^ny  holes  or  open  spaces  into  which  young  lambs  might  creep,  a 
thing  they  are  very  apt  to  do,  but  they  ai'e  not  apt  to  get  out  again 
and  of  course  they  soon  perish.  Lambs  ai'e  often  lost  in  this  way 
unless  care  is  taken  to  prevent  it. 


PIG  PENS. 

Some  years  ago  I  built  a  range  of  pig  pens,  of  which  a  view  is  here 
given.  At  first  it  was  made  seventy  feet  long,  and  I  found  it  so  con- 
venient that  it  was  increased  by  additions  to  200  feet.  It  was  nine 
feet  high  on  one  side,  and  six  and  one-half  on  the  other,  and  sixteen 
feet  wide.     It  had  a  four-feet  alley  the  whole  length.     The  pens  were 


RANGE  OF  PIG  PENS. 


twelve  by  ten  feet  each,  divided  from  each  other  by  partitions  three 
feet  high.  Each  i^en  had  a  double  door,  the  ujjper  one  used  for 
ventilation,  and  the  lower  one  to  close  the  pen  when  the  pigs  were 
not  allowed  in  the  yard.  At  one  end  of  the  range  of  pens  there  was 
a  boiler  for  cooking  feed,  which  was  distributed  among  the  pigs  along 
the  feeding  alley.  As  pigs  are  indispensable  on  most  fai-ms  to  consume 
the  wastes,  and  as  the  profit  fi-om  them  and  the  ease  of  labor  in 
attending  to  them  depend  upon  tlie  an-angement  of  the  j)ens,  it  is 
veiy  necessary  that  this  matter  should  receive  attention.  A  plank 
floor  is  required  for  jjig  jseus,  as  the  pigs  would  soon  dig  up  any 
other  kind.  The  floor  shoidd  have  a  slope  to  the  yard  for  the 
di-ainage,  to  keep  them  dry,  for  though  the  pig  is  supposed  to  be 
a.  filthy  animal,  yet  none  other  thrive  better  for  being  kept  diy  and 
clean. 

An  excellent  piggery,  built  a  few  years  ago  by  Mr.  ¥.  D.  Curtis,  of 
Saratoga  County,  N.  Y.,  is  shown  in  the  following  engi-avings, 
the  first  of  which  represents  the  general  view  of  the  building  and 


218 


How  THK  Fakm  Pays. 


the  yards.  The  second  shows  the  side  view;  the  third  is  the  cellar. 
It,  R,  being  the  root  bins,  with  a  root  cutter  at  G.  The  feeding  box 
is  at  F;  at  C  is  the  cistern;  T,  T,  ai'e  meal  bins;  K  is  the  boiler  and 
B  the  stau-s  up  to  the  main  floor.  The  plan  of  the  pens  on  the  main 
floor  is  as  follows:  Tlie  first  pen  is  for  the  boar  in  use,  and  has  a. 


raised  floor,  -with  an  outer  door  for  the  convenience  of  neighbors* 
sows  brought  for  sen-ice.  The  other  pens  are  for  sows  and  pigs. 
Each  is  provided  ■\%-ith  an  iron  feed  ti-ough  and  with  a  feed  shute. 
Each  pen  is  provided  with  a  guai-d  rail  for  the  protection  of  the 
young  i)igs,  which  is  ijlaced  six  inches  above  the  floor  and  six  inches 


A    CONTEXIEN'T    PuiGERY. 


219 


from  the  wall.  The  floors  of  the  pens  were  made  water-proof  in  the 
following  manner:  First  a  floor  of  diy  hemlock  one-and-one-quarter- 
inch  plank  was  laid.  This  was  covered  with  a  coat  of  hot  gas  tar, 
and  a  second  floor  was  laid  directly  upon  this  tar  while  it  was  hot. 
Sufficient  tar  was  laid  on  to  fill  all  the  cracks  between  the  floor.  The 
upp-cr   floor   was   then  given   a   coat   of  hot  tar  and  well   sanded. 


This  floor  was  found  very  satisfactory,  being  hard,  di-y,  quite 
vermin-proof,  and  never  permitting  any  leakage  into  the  cellar 
below. 

Considering  the  enormous  losses  in  swine  by  diseases  on  the  lai'ge 
"Western  feeding  faiius,  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  cost  of 


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well  arranged  buildings  would  soon  be  paid  for  in  the  value  of  the 
animals  saved.  Where  losses  foot  up  to  ten  mUUon  dollai-s  in  a  year, 
it  is  very  clear  that  there  would  be  a  good  jDrofit  made  fi'om  the  use 
of  comfortable  buildings  to  secure  shelter  and  cleanliness. 


220  How  THE  Fahm  Pavs. 

CATTLE    BARNS. 

The  business  of  stall  feeding  cattle  will,  I  am  confident,  greatly  increase 
east  of  the  great  gi-azing  plains  during  the  coming  yeai-s,  along  with 
daiiying.  In  this  respect  we  must  follow  the  course  of  the  English, 
Scotch  and  European  iu-mers.  Grain  wUl  lie  grown  in  the  rich 
North-western  Territories  and  in  California,  where  land  is  cheap, 
and  mixed  fai'ming  is  not  suitable  on  account  of  the  climate. 
Grain  cannot  be  gro-wu  to  pay  in  the  E;ist — and  by  East  I  mean  all 
tlie  States  east  of  the  !Missoui-i  River — unless  stock  is  stall  fed  to  make 
manure.  Rich  feetling  stufiEs,  as  oil-cakes,  bran  fi'om  the  gi'eat 
"Western  mills,  and  corn  fi-om  the  prau'ie  States,  which  can  he  bought 
more  cheaply  than  it  can  be  raised,  must  take  the  place  of  farm 
grown  coai-se  gi-ain;  and  fodder  crops  and  roots  will  be  produced  in 
abundance  for  the  cattle.  A  farm  of  100  acres  •n-ill  have  its  feeding 
sheds  where  from  twenty  to  lifty  head  of  beeves  or  200  or  300  sheep 
will  be  fattened  every  winter,  and  larger  farms  will  feed  more  in  pro- 
portion. I  do  not  see  how  this  can  be  helped.  Calves  that  are  now 
butchered  or  sold  for  a  few  dollai's,  and  lean  cattle  fi'om  the  West,  will  be 
bought  up  for  feeding.  The  land  can  be  made  rich  enough  for  profitable 
farming  only  in  this  way  and  by  dair'ying,  and  every  farm  cannot  be 
a  dairy,  because  there  is  a  limit  to  the  demand  of  butter  and  cheese, 
and  the  great  cities  and  foreign  countries  must  have  beef  and  mutton. 

In  this  case  i^roijerly  ai-ranged  bams  for  feeding  must  be  jiro'vided. 
Labor  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  or  the  jirofit  will  be  small,  and 
labor  is  reduced  by  convenient  arrangements  for  feeding. 

One  man  is  able  to  feed  and  care  for  fifty  head  of  cattle  when  every- 
thing is  well  arranged  with  suitable  buildings.  This  wiU  cost  about 
two  cents  a  day  for  attention  and  ewe,  which  is  about  as  cheap  as  I 
think  it  can  be  done.  If  the  cattle  ai'e  fed  for  four  months,  and  250 
pounds  only  is  added  to  the  weight  of  each  in  that  time,  the  cost  for 
labor  wiU  be  less  than  one  cent  per  pound  of  this  increase.  The 
great  profit  in  feeding  cattle,  however,  is  not  in  this  increased  weight, 
but  in  the  increased  value  of  the  whole  animal  from  its  better  quidity. 
A  fat  steer  can  be  easily  made  worth  one  cent  a  pound  of  live  weight 
more  than  its  cost  when  it  was  thin;  thus  a  1,600-pound  animal  will 
have  at  least  $1(5  added  to  its  value  in  this  way,  in  addition  to  the 
value  of  the  added  weight.  Those  farmere  who  do  not  understand 
this  fact  lose  sight  of  the  most  important  part  of  the  business. 

A  cattle  shed  should  be  roomy,  both  to  give  the  animals  plenty  of 
fresh  air,  and  to  aflbrd  convenience  in  feeding  them  and  removing 
the  manure.  The  jiens  should  be  made  in  ranges  ha^"ing  a  feeding 
passage  large  enough  for  a  cai-t  to  be  taken  thi-ough  with  roots,  hay. 


Plan  of  Cattle  Shed. 


221 


straw  and  feed,  aud  an  alley  as  large  for  the  jDurpose  of  taking  out 
tlie  mauirre.  It  is  a  good  plan  -when  there  is  abundance  of  straw  for 
litter  to  tiU  uj)  the  Yiens  once  a  day  and  let  the  mamu-e  collect  for  a 
month,  or  in  fact  for  the  whole  feeding  season,  as  it  is  kept  hard 
trodden  and  is  not  at  all  disagreeable.     In  this  case  the  stalls  are 


FEAMF.  iOU  CATTLE  taSEDS. 


enclosed  and  made  large  enough  for  the  cattle  to  turn  around,  and 
the  animals  are  left  loose.  This  jjlan  is  yery  common  on  the  lai'ge 
cattle  farms  in  England.  The  plans  here  given  represent  one  of 
these  English  cattle  sheds,  and  may  be  worthy  of  study,  as  showing 
the  system  in  common  use  there.  The  whole  width  in  the  clear  is 
eighty-one  feet.     If  the  pens  or  stalls  are  made  to  run  across  the 


SIDE  TIEW  OF  FKAME. 


building  this  will  afford  spsice  for  five  rows  of  pens  haying  four  pas- 
sages between  them,  the  cattle  standing  on  the  outside  rows  with  theii- 
backs  to  the  ends  of  the  building.  A  square  shed  of  this  size  will 
hold  fifty  head  in  fiye  rows  of  ten  each,  and  each  one  having  a  looss 


222  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

stall  of  ten  by  eight  feet.  The  sides  of  the  building  wUl  have  wide 
double  doors  ten  feet  apart  opening  to  the  passages,  and  at  each  end 
there  will  be  doors  for  letting  the  cattle  in  and  out,  and  for  taking  out 
manure  from  the  end  rows  of  jiens. 

In  the  plan  given,  the  roof  is  made  with  spaces  between  the  eaves 
of  the  valleys  for  collecting  the  rain  water  into  gutters  which  carry  it 
into  cisterns.  About  100,000  gallons  of  water  could  be  collected  in 
four  fall  and  winter  months  with  our  rain-fall,  and  this  supply  would 
be  of  considerable  value,  aflbrding  about  eight  gallons  a  day  for  each 
head.  But  as  the  water  would  be  gathered  through  the  whole  year, 
if  there  was  sufficient  cistern  room  to  save  it,  there  would  be  enough 
to  supply  all  the  wants  of  the  cattle  for  the  foiu"  months  of  the  feeding 
season. 

The  plan  for  the  side  of  the  building  is  also  given.  In  England 
iron  is  cheaper  than  timber,  dui'abihty  and  strength  being  considered. 
But  as  timber  is  cheaper  here  than  ii'ou,  the  posts  shown  will  be 
made  of  timber.  The  foundations  of  the  posts  ai-e  stones  bedded  in 
the  ground  or  blocks  of  concrete.  The  toot  of  each  post  is  fitted 
into  a  cast  ii'on  socket,  one  inch  smaller  inside  than  the  timber,  the 
timber  being  cut  away  to  fit  the  socket  makes  an  even  joint,  and 
being  bedded  in  paint  presences  the  wood  from  rotting.  The  floor  of 
the  whole  shed  may  be  of  gravel  and  clay  well  beaten,  or,  for  a  well 
bmlt  shed,  of  concrete.  An  eai-then  floor,  however,  properly  graded 
to  the  gutters  and  di'ains,  will  be  sufficient  when  j)lenty  of  litter  is 
furnished.  Sheds  of  cheaper  constniction  may  be  built  to  sei^v-e  an 
equally  good  puii>ose,  excepting  so  far  as  regards  diu-ability.  A 
different  an-angement  may  be  made  if  desirable,  which  would  gi'eatlj' 
reduce  the  cost,  viz.,  the  cattle  may  be  kept  loose  in  the  shed,  and 
fed  fi'om  racks  and  gi-ain  troughs  on  each  side  of  a  drive-way.  With 
this  arrangement  twice  as  many  cattle  could  be  kept  in  this  shed, 
tlu'ee  di'ive-ways  only  being  made,  one  in  the  centre  and  one  at 
each  side,  leaving  two  large  spaces  for  the  cattle.  But,  as  cattle  feed 
better  and  make  more  flesh  when  quiet  and  undistiu'bed,  it  is  a  ques- 
tion if  the  plan  of  having  stalls  would  not  pay  more  jsrofit,  notwith- 
standing its  lai'ger  cost.  The  pai-titious  between  the  stalls  are 
made  of  bars  which  are  movable,  so  that  when  the  cattle  ai-e  taken 
out  the  bars  are  removed,  and  wagons  can  be  di'iven  in  all  over  to 
take  out  the  manure. 

FENCES. 

Another  important  matter  to  the  farmer,  somewhat  allied  to  the 
buildings,  is  the  fences.  Conditions  are  so  varied  that  this  is  some- 
thing in  which  the  farmer  will  in  most  cases  have  to  be  guided  as 


Fences.  223 

«ircumstances  may  suggest.  I  may  say,  however,  that  I  am  a  great  foe 
to  fences.  I  have  torn  down  miles  upon  miles  of  fences,  and  have 
gained  by  it  a  great  deal  of  the  very  best  land.  I  don't  believe  in 
having  any  fences  whatever  except  line  fences,  and  highway  fences. 
It  will  always  pay  better  to  hire  a  good  boy  to  take  care  of  cattle  than 
"to  build  fences.  The  kinds  of  fences  must  of  course  depend  upon 
the  locality.  In  some  sections,  where  timber  is  plentiful  and  lumber 
scarce,  the  cheapest  fence  may  be  found  to  be  the  ordinary  rail 
or  post  and  rail  fence;  but  wherever  lumber  can  be  obtained  at 
reasonable  price,  I  think  it  will  be  found  that  a  board  fence  can  be 
erected  at  less  cost,  besides  taking  up  less  land  and  presenting  a 
much  neater  ai^pearance.  A  solid  post  and  three-rail  fence  can  always 
be  made  at  less  cost  than  an  ordinary  worm  fence,  even  without  con- 
sidering the  economy  of  land.  Live  fences  are  now  used  to  a  great 
€xtent  on  the  prairies,  where  timber  is  scarce.  No  other  fence  is  cheaper 
or  better  than  this  if  a  little  care  be  taken  for  the  first  four  or  five 
years  in  their  management.  The  seedhng  jilants  of  Honey  Locust  or 
Osage  Orange  can  be  bought  at  $.5  per  1,000  jjlants,  a  foot  high.  Such 
plants,  if  set  out  at  one  foot  apart  and  the  land  kept  clean  for  a  foot 
or  so  each  side  of  the  hedge,  and  kejit  carefully  trimmed  into  the  shape 
of  a  blunt  wedge,  will  attain  a  height  of  five  or  six  feet  in  five  or  six 
years,  and  wiU  fonn  a  ban-ier,  with  needlelike  spurs,  so  dense  that 
a  rat  could  hardly  get  through  it;  of  coiu'se  some  temporary' 
fence  would  be  required  till  it  grows  up.  Transplanted  two- 
year-old  plants  will  always  be  found'  the  cheapest,  even  at  $15 
per  1,000. 

Wire  fences  are  coming  into  general  use,  both  plain  and  barbed. 
Barb  wire  is  no  doubt  the  best,  and  in  grazing  locaHties  is  indispen- 
sable. But  where  valuable  animals  are  kept  there  may  be  danger  of 
injury,  which  it  is  better  to  avoid  by  using  the  plain  wire.  A  plain 
"wire  fence  may  be  made  equally  effective  as  one  of  barbed  wire,  by 
putting  the  posts  down  firmly,  and  bracing  them  sufficiently,  and 
straining  the  wire  tight.  Eing  staples  with  screws  and  nuts  may  be 
used  at  the  end  of  the  fences  for  tightening  the  wires,  when  this  is 
needed.  No  less  than  four  wires  should  be  used.  In  some  cases  a 
narrow  board  nailed  to  the  posts  over  the  top  wire  is  used  with  ad- 
vantage, as  this  is  more  easily  seen  by  the  animals.  The  posts  should 
never  be  more  than  sixteen  feet  apart,  and  twelve  feet  is  better  unless 
the  posts  are  ver^•  firmly  braced.  Number  nine  galvanized  steel  wire  is 
used.  Such  a  fence,  put  down  in  the  best  manner,  need  not  cost 
more  than  three  cents  a  foot  under  favorable  circumstances,  or  five 
cents  a  foot  at  the  most. 


224  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


REARING  AND   KEEPING  POFLTRT. 

Poultry,  like  hogs,  are  oue  of  the  items  on  the  fann  of  ■which,  if  many 
ai'e  kept,  the  cost  usually  oveiTuns  the  profit;  but  the  farmer  cannot 
afford  to  be  witliout  eggs  or  chickens,  and  if  he  had  to  buy  I  fear  the  good- 
wife  would  come  short  sometimes,  eggs  being  used  in  so  many  ways 
about  the  kitchen,  and  a  jilump  fowl  is  so  handy  for  a  meal.  In  the 
winter  time,  when  eggs  bring  fifty  cents  j^er  dozen,  there  is  a  profit  in 
fowls,  but  when  they  i-un  down  to  twelve  and  fifteen  cents,  as  they  do 
for  the  gi'eater  piui  of  tlie  yeai',  fowls  do  not  pay  for  their  keep,  unless 
tlie  fiuTuer  has  a  lai-ge  min  neai'  his  maniu'e  yai'd.  L'nder  special  cir- 
cuiustiuices  poultry  may  be  made  quite  profitable.  A  farmer  in  my 
neighborhood  keeps  from  six  to  seven  hundred  hens  for  their  eggs, 
and  idthough  he  has  300  acres  of  land,  this  is  the  only  way  in  which 
he  jjays  his  taxes  and  other  expenses.  He  plows  in  the  woods  among 
the  trees  several  times  from  April  until  the  end  of  November,  and 
here  the  hens  make  out  their  lining,  feeding  on  worms  and  larva)  of 
insects.  But  fowls  in  my  opinion  do  not  often  pay  where  grain  has  to 
be  bought  or  produced  to  feed  them,  and  they  get  no  other  food.  A  hen 
can  be  kejit  for  the  sum  of  one  dollar  a  year  for  gi'ain,  where  it  has  a 
good  iTUi,  and  where  the  eggs  and  chickens  ai'e  worth  two  dollars  yier  hen 
and  the  hens  can  be  kept  free  from  disease  there  will  be  a  good  profit. 
^ATiere  poultry  rsiising  on  a  Lu'ge  scale  is  practiced  the  incubator  is 
used  at  times  with  success,  but  there  ai'e  few  farmere  who  have  had 
any  experience  with  it,  and  to  such  as  are  interested  in  poultiy  raising 
as  a  business,  we  would  refer  them  to  special  works  on  the  subject. 
I  have  kejjt  the  English  "White  Dorking,  but  the  gTay  variety  I  have 
never  had  much  success  with,  as  they  seem  to  be  more  tender  than 
the  white  breed.  I  also  imported  the  Black  Spanish,  and  the  "UTiite 
Leghorn,  but  only  kept  them  one  season.  Two  yeai-s  ago  I  got  fifty 
Plymouth  Rocks.  I  built  a  small  poultry  house  in  the  fivU  and  put 
them  into  it.  They  were  fed  morning  and  night  -with  wanu  feed,  and 
we  had  eggs  all  winter  through,  and  early  spring  chickens  large  enough 
for  broilers  in  Jlay;  but  if  I  had  had  three  limes  as  many  hens  with 
no  greater  accommodations,  I  would  doubtless  not  have  had  as  many 
eggs,  and  therefore  I  think  that  eveiy  fanner  should  select  a  few  of 
the  best  breed  and  keep  only  that  few  and  tend  them  well,  or  his 
profit  in  poulby  will  be  apt  to  be  very  light  indeed. 

The  Plymouth  Eocks  I  find  ai-e  very  satisfactoiy,  as  they  aie  quiet 
and  do  not  distml)  the  garden  much,  and  mature  very  eai-ly,  and 
sometimes  will  tb'ess  at  six  months  old  five  to  six  lbs.  and  when 
fuU  grown  seven  to  eight  lbs.     In  winter,  chickens  should  be  kept  in 


POULTKY    KEEPrNG.  225 

a  filace  ■where  they  aie  moderately  waiTu,  iu  a  terujieratiu'e  of  from 
forty  to  lift}'  degrees,  and  at  that  season  of  the  year  when  insects  are 
not  to  be  obtained,  they  should  be  fed  ■with  the  scraps  or  lea^^"ings 
from  the  kitchen,  broken  or  cmshed  bones,  or  anrthing  that  will  stand 
in  lieu  of  their-  natui-al  insect  food. 


PLrMOCTH 


The  Plj-mouth  Rock  is  a  large,  -weV  fomied  bird,  ■with  a  small  single 
comb,  clean  yellow  legs,  a  large  breast  and  bluish  jDencilled  plumage. 
It  resembles  most  in  form  the  English  Dorking  of  all  our  American 
fo^wls.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  best  fo^wl  to  be  kept  on  farms,  as  it  is  a 
good  early  ■winter  layer,  a  good  brooder,  the  chicks  are  hardy  and 
can  be  reared  early,  and  make  the  best  of  broilers  at  t^n'o  to  three 
months  old,  thus  coming  in  at  a  season  ■when  chickens  bring  about 
t^wenty-five  cents  a  pound  ususilly,  and  forty  cents  a  jsound  at  times. 

One  of  the  most  profitable  branches  of  poultry  keeping  is  the 
rearing  of  young  chickens  for  market.  For  these  the  earliest  broods 
are  preferable,  although  there  is  little  profit  in  trying  to  rear  chicks 
before  May,  unless  one  has  a  well  fui-nished  and  -warm  jjoultry  house, 
heated  with  a  stove.  Where  there  is  a  green-house  or  cold  grapery  a 
poultry  house  may  be  attached  to  it,  and  get  the  surplus  heat,  and 
in  this  way  young  chicks  can  be  reared  in  Januai-y  or  Februaiy.  It 
will  not  pay,  however,  on  an  average  farm,  to  do  this;  but  there  are 
many  market  farms  near  large  cities,  or  near  summer  resorts,  where 
poultry  keeping  of  this  kind  may  bring  in  several  hundred  doUars  a 
year,  and  this  may  be  earned  by  the  younger  members  of  the  family. 
To  rear  market  chicks  the  early  broods  should  be  put  in  a  warm 
coop,  having  a  sash  cover,  so  as  to  get  the  warmth,  and  another  sash 
may  cover  a  small  yard,  where  the  chicks  may  run  and  take  exercise. 
On  cold  nights  the  glass  cover  may  be  protected  by  a  sack  or  a  straw 


22fi  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

mat.  A  Lip;bt  Brahma  ben,  in  a  roomy  coop  of  this  kind,  will  take 
twenty  chicks  and  rear  all  without  the  loss  of  one,  as  the  brood  is 
quite  safe  fi-om  accident.  The  food  should  be  oat  meal,  cracked  corn 
and  finely  chopped  meat  scraps,  with  plenty  of  pm-e  water.  Light 
Brahma  chicks  ai-e  exceetlingly  biu-dy,  and  altboufjb  almost  bare  of 
feathei-s  for  several  weeks  will  stand  severe  cold  if  kept  tb-y.  When 
the  chicks  are  two  montlis  old  the  ben  may  be  taken  from  them,  and 
they  will  nestle  in  theii-  coop  quite  comfortably  alone.  At  ten  or 
twelve  weeks  old  they  will  weigh  two  to  thi-ee  pounds,  and  will  sell 
for  $1.50  a  pair  in  good  markets,  and  nearly  as  much,  when  half 
this  weight,  as  broilers.  Later  chicks,  ready  for  mju-ket  when 
summer  boarding  is  at  its  height,  readily  sell  for  twenty-five  cents  a 
pound,  and  a  fom--montbs-old  Light  Brahma  cockerel,  at  that  age, 
will  bring  a  doUai'.  FaiTuers  who  make  a  special  business  of  this 
have  often  realized  $5  fi'om  each  hen  of  a  weU  managed  flock,  includ- 
ing the  eggs  sold  eai'ly  in  the  season  at  the  usually  high  jirices  then 
cuirent 


M.^NAGEMENT  OF  EARLY  CHICKENS. 

As  in  all  special  branches  of  any  business,  the  rearing  of  poultry 
requii'es  considerable  tact  and  experience.  And  the  reaiing  of  early 
chickens  is  still  more  exacting  in  this  respect.  But  when  properly 
managed,  either  of  these  specisUties  may  be  made  a  profitable  addition 
to  the  fann  business  under  some  circumstances.  Grain  fanning  and 
poultry  keeping  ^"ill  not  go  together,  but  dairying  and  stock  feeding 
will  do  veiy  well  with  ])oultrv  rearing.  Poulti-y  is  especially  adapted 
tor  daily  farms,  as  fowls  will  consume  the  spai-e  milk  with  equal  and 
perhaps  gi-eater  pi-ofit  than  pigs  ■will.  For  satisfactory  success,  how- 
ever, there  lu-e  some  requisites  that  are  indispensable.  It  is  all  in  the 
management.  Fii'st  a  weD  airanged  house  and  ywd  are  needed;  and 
the  necessaiy  an-angenient  includes  the  eas\-  securing  of  perfect 
cleanliness,  di^-ness,  and  thorough  ventilation.  Next  there  must  be 
such  a  provision  and  kind  of  nests  and  fittings  that  vermin  can  find 
no  harbor;  that  the  hens  caimot  quaiTcl  and  fight  and  break  their 
eggs,  and  so  learn  the  bad  habit  of  eating  them.  Then  there  must 
be  a  separate  apartment  for  brooding  hens,  where  they  may  not  be 
annoyed  by  laying  hens,  and  evei-y  provision  for  their  feeding  and 
comfort  and  security;  lastly  there  must  be  a  properly  aiTanged  method 
of  protecting  the  young  chicks  as  soon  as  they  ai-e  hatched  and  until 
the  whole  brood  is  out  and  strong  enough  to  go  into  the  cooj)  with 
the  hen. 


The  Poultry  Hoise  and  Yakd.  227 

Pii-st  let  us  consider  the  house.  A  very  convenient  one  for  a  iiock 
of  fifty  hens,  which  is  as  many  as  should  be  kept  in  one  house  and 
yard,  is  made  as  follows:  it  is  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  long,  ten  feet 
wide,  eight  feet  high  in  the  front  and  five  feet  in  the  rear,  with  a 
sloping  roof.  It  should  be  divided  into  two  apartments,  one  sis  or 
«ight  feet  long,  and  the  other  eighteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  separated 
by  a  tight  partition,  with  a  door  in  it  leading  fi-om  one  to  the  other. 
There  should  be  a  door  in  each  apartment,  and  a  large  window,  which 
should  face  the  south.  The  floor  should  be  the  ground,  and  this 
should  be  high  and  dry  and  drained,  so  that  rain  water  fi-om  the  roof 
cannot  enter.  The  only  fittings  inside  are  the  roosts,  which  ai'e  made 
in  a  frame  of  three  bai's  fom-  inches  wide,  having  two  cross  jjieces  to 
hold  them  together.  This  frame  is  hinged  to  the  rear  wall,  sixteen 
inches  only  from  the  ground  and  all  on  a  level,  which  entkely  prevents 
fighting  to  get  the  highest  peixh  and  prevents  injury  from  the  fowls 
flying  down  from  the  roosts.  This  frame  can  be  raised  against  the 
wall,  out  of  the  way,  when  the  floor  is  cleaned,  which  should  be  done 
at  least  every  week,  in  a  thorough  manner.  This  will  wholly  prevent 
vermin  hai-boring  in  the  house  and  prevent  much  suftering  for  the 
fowls.  The  nests  are  loose  boxes  sixteen  inches  long,  and  twelve  wide 
and  deep;  oj)en  at  one  side  where  the  hen  enters  and  having  a 
naiTow  strip  at  the  bottom  three  inches  wide  to  keep  the  nest  in  its 
place.  These  nest  boxes  are  loose  and  are  jjlaced  on  the  floor  around 
the  house.  When  a  hen  sets  and  has  settled  down,  the  nest  with  the 
hen  is  removed  to  the  setting  room,  and  another  box  is  put  in  its 
place.  The  eggs  are  taken  from  the  nests  at  noon,  and  in  the  evening 
when  the  hens  are  fed.  When  the  setting  hen  is  settled  do^^-n  quietly, 
the  brood  of  eggs  is  given  to  her  and  a  card  is  jiinned  to  the  wall  over 
the  nest  having  the  date  on  it  when  the  hen  was  set.  AVith  such  an 
arrangement  as  this  there  is  no  trouble,  and  the  hens  are  kept  quiet 
and  docile,  and  this  saves  eggs  and  chickens. 

The  yai'd  should  be  enclosed  safely,  and  for  fifty  fowls  should  con- 
tain half  an  acre  or  200  feet  by  100.  It  shordd  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  each  to  be  used  alternately,  and  while  one  is  being  used  the 
other  should  be  plowed  up  and  sown  with  some  quick  growing  crop, 
as  peas,  rape,  turnips,  oats,  etc.,  for  the  fowls  to  feed  upon  and  scratch 
among.  This  secures  cleanliness  of  the  ground,  and  a  valuable 
provision  of  green  food  for  the  fowls.  In  this  way  fifty  fowls  can  be 
kept  enclosed  all  the  time  in  perfect  health  and  thiift  and  with  corre- 
sponding profit.  But  it  cannot  be  done  in  any  other  way.  For  the 
fences,  cheajj  wu'e  netting  is  the  best  and  most  economical. 

The  feeding  of  fowls  should  be  regular  and  the  food  should  be 
varied.     Eaiiy  morning,  noon,  and  night,  the  food  should  be  supphed 


228  How  THE  Faum  Pavs. 

and  never  given  in  excess.  Over  feeding  surely  produces  disease. 
Fowls  should  never  be  given  all  thej'  will  eat  An  average  of  one 
bushel  of  grain  is  sufficient  for  one  fowl  for  a  year,  iu  addition  to 
what  green  food  is  supphed  in  the  way  above  mentioned,  or  that  can 
be  picked  up  in  a  moderate  range.  This  is  equal  to  about  two  and 
one-half  ounces  a  day.  A  variety  of  grain  is  advisable.  Wheat, 
barley,  buckwheat,  corn,  and  mixed  meal  and  bran,  with  some  boiled 
potatoes  or  milk  or  buttenuilk,  and  some  flesh  meat  occasionally,  wiU. 
be  necessai'y.  With  such  feeding,  and  jDlenty  of  clean  fresh  water 
tvrice  a  day,  there  will  be  no  ti'ouble  from  sickness,  and  of  course 
sickness  among  the  fowls  will  destroy  all  the  jirofit 

It  is  a  gi-eat  help  to  have  the  fowls  docile  and  easily  handled.  This- 
is  secured  bj-  a  simple  method  of  managing,  which  is  as  follows.  ^\jid 
this  method  also  has  other  advantage  as  will  be  seen.  The  hens 
being  set  in  theu-  sei^ai-ate  apartment  are  fed  and  watered  daily,  and 
soon  become  used  to  this  attendance.  "\ATien  the  chicks  begin  to 
a2)pear  they  ai-e  taken,  as  they  come  out  of  the  shell,  or  with  the 
broken  shell,  if  necessary,  from  under  the  hen,  and  put  in  a  nursing 
mother  made  as  foUows:  A  box  made  wdth  double  sides,  filled  with 
wool  waste  or  cotton  batting,  about  sixteen  inches  squai'e  everj'  way 
inside  and  standing  on  end,  has  a  shelf  fitted  in  the  middle.  Under 
this  shelf  a  tin  box  fiUed  with  hot  water  is  placed  to  warm  up  the  box 
to  ninety -five  degrees.  The  young  chick  is  put  on  this  shelf  in  a 
nest  of  sawdust,  where  it  is  kept  warm  and  rests  comfortably  wliile 
the  others  ai'e  coming  out.  It  is  always  well  to  set  two  hens  on  the 
same  day,  so  that  two  broods  come  out  at  the  same  time.  Witk 
average  success  from  eight  to  ten  chicks  will  come  from  each  brood, 
and  all  are  put  into  the  niu-sing  mother  until  the  two  broods  are  all 
hatched.     The  last  two  or  ihi'ee  may  be  left  under  the  hen. 

The  coop,  which  should  be  roomy,  is  prepared,  and  if  the  weather 
is  yet  cold,  should  be  put  in  a  glass  house,  or  have  a  glass  covering, 
and  be  put  in  a  sunny,  sheltered  corner.  At  night  the  hen  with  the 
chicks  are  removed  to  the  coop,  and  left  in  a  di-y,  comfortable  nest, 
made  ot  chaff,  in  a  comer  of  the  coop,  or  upon  a  piece  of  dr^' 
bagging.  The  hen  thus  adojsts  all  the  chicks,  and  in  the  morning 
will  be  found  cimug  for  them.  The  hen  and  chicks  are  fed  with 
some  soaked  bread  or  cracked  wheat  or  coai'se  oatmcid  for  two  or 
three  days,  and  after  that  with  coarse  corn  meal  and  other  food.  They 
soon  become  tame,  and  will  feed  out  of  the  hand,  and  this  tameness 
is  encouraged  aftenvards,  so  that  the  fowls  can  be  handled,  and  will 
feed  out  of  the  hand  at  any  time.  This  veiy  much  eases  the  work, 
and  makes  it  successful  and  profitable.  The  chicks  should  have  a  i-un 
out  on  grass  or  in  a  garden,  where  they  will  i^ick  up  mmads  of 


Light  Beahma  Fowls. 


229 


insects  and  do  no  mischief;  but  the  hen  should  be  kept  in  the  coop. 
The  coojj  should  have  no  fixed  bottom,  but  a  loose  one  of  boards, 
"which  can  be  covered  with  dry  earth  and  changed  twice  a  week.  By 
Tunning  over  fi-esh  gi-ound  the  chicks  never  have  the  gapes.  When 
the  chicks  are  two  months  old  the  hens  may  be  taken  away  from 
them,  if  the  weather  is  warm,  and  the  chicks  will  nestle  in  their 
<:oo25S  as  usual  by  themselves,  until  they  are  quite  large  and  ready 
for  sale. 

In  small  flocks  there  is  the  most  and  the  surest  j)i"ofit;  but  where 
there  is  a  range  of  grass  land,  a  poor,  rough  field,  or  one  that  has 
been  run  down  by  bad  management  and  needs  a  rest,  a  stock  of 
poultry,  managed  as  above  described,  has  often  paid  more  profit  than 
any  other  investment  on  the  farm. 


Light  Brahmas  are  the  most  popular  fowl  and  are  even  heavier  than 
"the  Plj-mouth  Eocks.  TMien  this  variety  is  kept  in  the  best  manner, 
small  flocks  of  them  have  been  known  to  jiay  as  much  as  fom-  or  five 
doUai-s  per  hen  in  the  year.  But  in  all  poultry  keeping,  crowding 
must  be  avoided  or  the  flock  will  suffer,  and  the  owner  wUl  svu-ely  lose 
by  them  instead  of  making  a  gain.  Overcrowding  and  filth  are  the 
bane  of  poultry,  as  they  ai-e  the  destiniction  of  sheep  or  pigs,  as  they 
sm-ely  produce  fatal  disorders. 

The  Light  Brahma  is  among  poultry  what  the  Short  Horn  is  among 
beef  cattle  or  the  Jersey  in  the  dairj'.  It  is  handsome,  clean  and 
•exceedingly  productive.  When  well  kept  it  is  not  subject  to  disease; 
it  lays  about  eighty  or  ninety  eggs  on  an  average  in  Ihe  year,  and  will 
safely  rear  eight  chicks  per  hen  in  a  flock.     As  a  fowl  may  be  kept 


230  How  THE  Farsi  Pays. 

for  a  dollar  per  year,  the  isrofit  is  large;  but  in  farming  it  is  never  safe 
to  calculate  one's  profits  by  aiithmetic,  for  if  a  flock  of  fifty  fowls  or 
100  sbeep,  or  a  herd  of  twenty  cows,  produce  a  certain  income,  it  rarely 
follows  that  twice  as  many  will  double  the  profit.  This  depends  strictly 
upon  the  conditions  and  circumstances,  the  conveniences,  and  above 
all  upon  the  skiU  and  experience  of  the  owner. 

The  Light  Brahma  is  one  of  the  lai-gest  of  fowls;  a  yearling  cockerel 
will  weigh  ten  or  eleven  pounds,  and  a  pullet  seven  to  eight;  the 
fiesh  is  yellow;  the  legs  yellow;  the  plumage  white  and  downy,  except- 
ing the  tail  feathers,  and  the  principal  wing  feathers,  wliich  ai-e  black; 
the  neck  feathers  are  mixed  with  black,  forming  a  broad  collar.  The 
legs  ai'e  feathered  down  to  the  toes.  The  comb  is  small  and  pea  fonued. 
This  is  an  American  breed,  the  origin  of  which  is  now  in  some  doubt, 
but  in  value  it   undoubtedly   comes  first  among  all  the  breeds  of 


SILVER  BPANOLED  HAMBCBOS. 


fowls  for  i^rofitable  keejiiiig,  when  the  requisite  care  is  given  to  it; 
otherwise,  as  with  every  fiu'm  animal  of  every  kind,  failure  is  certain. 

The  "White  Dorking  is  an  Enghsh  fowl,  and  in  that  <'ountry  is  the 
most  populiir  of  all  breeds  of  poultry.  The  vicinity  of  tlie  town  of 
Dorking  is  a  noted  place  for  rearing  poultry,  and  is  an  example  of 
what  can  be  done  in  this  way  when  a  speciid  business  is  made  of  any 
jjiu'suit,  and  it  is  persevered  in  until  experience  brings  success.  The 
Dorking  fowls  are  the  oldest  breed  of  jaoultry  in  existence,  having 
been  kept  in  Britain  before  the  Romans  invaded  that  countiy,  but  of 
late  years  they  Tiave  been  much  improved  tlu'ough  exhibitions  and 
the  competition  of  breeds.  The  "White  Dorking  is  smaller  than  the 
gray  or  colored  viuieties  and  is  hardier.  It  is  considered  as  the  best 
of  all  the  English  breeds  for  poultry,  chickens  and  eggs.  AH  the 
Dorking's  have   an  extra  inner  toe.  making  five  in  all. 


Black  Spanish  Fowls. 


231 


The  varieties  of  Hamburgs,  of  which  there  are  Black,  Golden  and 
Silver  Pencilled,  Golden  and  Silver  Spangled  and  "WTiite,  are  handsome 
and  good  fowls;  they  are  all  good  layers  and  hardy,  but  are  rather  too 
small  for  market  j)urposes.  For  family  use  they  ai'e  desii-able,  when 
fowls  are  kept  for  ornament  as  well  as  use.  The  comb  is  flat,  rose 
shaped  and  large,  and  terminates  in  a  point  behind.  The  Black 
Spanish  is  a  profitable  fowl  as  regards  the   production  of  eggs,  of 


which  the}-  will  lay  in  a  year  one-thii'd  more  than  the  hu'ge  breeds,  as 
the  light  Brabmas  and  others  of  that  class.  But  the  hens  of  this 
breed  are  poor  brooders  and  rear  very  few  chickens,  so  that  this 
product,  which  is  really  the  most  profitable,  is  of  very  little  account. 
These  fowls  have  large,  single,  serrated  combs,  with  large  white  ear 
lobes  and  cheeks,  and  ai-e  very  tender  in  our  climate,  frequently 
having  the  combs  frozen. 


232  How  THE  F.utM  Pays. 

Of  the  nou-broodinff  fowls  the  Lefjlionis  ai-e  the  most  jiopular. 
They  f)''"'!'^''®  more  eggs  than  any  other  breed  under  equ;d  condi- 
tions, but  rear  very  few  cliickens.  They  are  small  and  light,  and  of 
course  not  so  profitable  for  the  poultry  rearer  as  the  larger  fowls,  ex- 
cepting for  the  production  of  eggs  in  the  winter  season.  They  are 
not  hardy  and  require  careful  treatment,  and  the  chickens  cannot  be 
reared  safely  until  the  warm  weather.  The  "^Tiite  Leghorn  is  the 
most  pojjular  of  this  class  of  fowls.  It  is  very  neat  and  handsome, 
and  has  the  large  comb  common  to  all  the  fowls  of  tliis  class. 

AVhen  jjoultry  are  kejit  solely  for  eggs  the  Leghorns  are  the  most 
satisfactory  of  all  fowls.  Their  eggs  are  large,  clear  white  in  color, 
well  shaped  and  are  quite  salable.  These  are  the  only  fresh  eggs  in 
the  market  at  the  times  when  they  sell  at  the  highest  i^rice,  and  of 
course  a  fowl  that  fills  the  basket  then  is  the  one  that  produces  the 
most  jsrofit  The  greatest  objection  to  them  is  their  tenderness  and 
the  danger  of  freezing  the  combs,  unless  warmlv  housed.     But  this 


WHITE  UMHORNS 


warm  housing  is  indispensable  for  all  fowls  wliich  are  kept  for  profit, 
as  hens  wiU  not  lay  eggs  when  exposed  to  cold,  and  not  even  the 
Leghorns.  Before  eggs  are  produced  the  fowls  must  be  fully  nour- 
ished, and  a  large  portion  of  the  food  is  consumed  in  maintaining  the 
warmth  of  an  animal  of  any  kind.  Leghorns,  as  all  the  smaller 
breeds  of  fowls,  consume  much  less  food  than  the  larger  breeds, 
probably  not  more  than  half  as  much,  and  although  their  eggs  are 
smaller,  yet  so  long  as  they  are  sold  by  count  and  not  by  weight,  the 
smaller  breeds  will  always  be  po]>uliu'  for  the  production  of  eggs. 

Tlie  Brown  Leghorn  has  a  plumage  of  a  liright  golden  bay,  with 
black  and  brown  intermixed,  and  has  some  resemblance  in  color  to 
the  Brown  Bed  Games.     Some  hens  of  this  breed  have  been  known  to 


HouDAN  Fowls.  233 

continue  laying  eggs  np  to  over  ten  years  of  age,  and  iu  all  have  pro- 
duced 2,000  eggs  and  over  in  tlieir  lifetime.  In  addition  to  these 
varieties  there  are  the  Dominique  Leghorns,  a  bluish  pencilled  sort, 
and  the  Black  Leghorns. 


K  LEGHORNS. 


The  crested  fowls  are  popular  vrith  some  poultry  keeiDers,  on  ac- 
count of  the  peculiar  bunch  of  fine  feathers  which  cover  the  heads. 
Of  these  there  are  the  French  and  the  various  kinds  of  Polish  fowls. 
The  Houdans  are  a  French  breed,  and  are  good  layers  but  poor 


Ijrooders.  They  ai'e  black  and  white  in  color,  with  pencilled  plumage, 
have  large  crests,  and  beards  about  the  throat,  and  combs  shaped 
Hke  a  deer's  antlers.  They  have  the  fifth  toe  like  the  Dork- 
ings.    These  bu-ds  have  excellent  white  flesh  and  lay   large  eggs. 


234 


How  THK  Faum  Pays. 


The  Polands  are  of  sevenil  kinds,  some  rather  curiously  varied  as 
to  iilumage,  as  White  Crested  Bhit-k,  "White  Crested  White,  Golden, 
Silver  and  Bearded  Golden  jind  Silver.  They  ai'e  good  fowls  for  a 
small  kind,  but  are  most  profitable  when  reared  for  sale  as  fancy 


fowls.  The  White  Crested  Black  and  the  White  Crested  "UTiite  ai-e 
the  most  popular-,  and  there  is  scai'cely  any  other  fowl,  excepting, 
perhaps,  some  of  the  little  bantams,  which  are  so  curious  as  the  little 
chicks  of  these  two  varieties,  vriiii  their  peculiar  crested  heads. 


.>** 


caEVEC<Ertts. 


The  Creveccem-s,  another  crested  breed  of  French  origin,  are  all 
black  and  have  beautiful  plumage,  with  a  rich  greenish  shade  in  the 
sunlight  They  difler  in  no  other  respects  fi-om  the  Houdans,  but  in 
plumage  and  in  having  no  fifth  to-. 


Wyandotte  Fo'nxs. 


235 


The  Wyandottes  are  a  new  breed,  wliieli  as  a  fancy  fowl  have 
gained  a  good  deal  of  popularity.  They  are  something  of  the  style 
of  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  but  are  sjiangled  with  white  after  the 
manner  of  the  Silver  Spangled  Hambui-gs.     They  are  heavy,  medium 


sized  fowls,  very  neat  and  pleasing  in  apjDeai'ance  and  have  a  rose 
comb.  They  are  said  to  be  good  layers  and  make  good  market  fowls. 
For  farmers  who  wish  to  keep  a  fancj'  fowl,  for  their  appearance 
and  for  breeding  for  sale,  this  variety  has  some  desirable  points. 


DAEK  BRAHMAS. 


The  Asiatics  are  aU  lieary  bodied,  thickly  feathered  vaiieties,  and 
are  chiefly  valued  for  breeding  for  sale.  Some  of  them  are  very 
handsome,  as  the  Bulf  Cochin,  which,  when  in  fiill  feather,  has  a  very 


236 


How  TiiK  F.MiM  Pays. 


attractive  appearance.  The  Dark  iSridiina  approaclies  more  closely 
to  this  class  of  fowls  tlian  the  Light  Brahma,  which  is  a  far  hotter 
fowl  for  ordinai-y  farm  piui^oses.  The  Dark  Bnihina  has  a  variegated 
jJumage  of  black  and  white,  with  long,  silky  neck  feathers  of  silvery 


WHITE  COCHINS. 


"white  striped  with  black,  and  a  small  pea  comb.  It  has  a  poor  repu- 
tation as  an  egg  producer,  and  excejiting  when  in  new  and  full 
feather  is  not  an  attractive  fowl. 

The  White  and  Black  Cochins  are  handsome  vaiieties,  large,  clean 


and  neatly  fonued,  but  they  have  no  special  Viilue  for  fanu  pm^poses, 
as  there  are  many  better  kinds  to  choose  from.  A  newly  introduced 
variety-  ciilled  the  Ijangshan  is  so  marly  like   the  Black   Cochin  that 


Baxtah  Fowls. 


237 


even  an  expert  would  be  puzzled  to  distinguish  between  them.  There 
is,  however,  a  difference  which  aj)pears  in  the  flesh,  the  Langshans. 
having  clear  white  skins  and  flesh,  while  the  Cochin  has  yeUow  flesh. 

The  various  breeds  known  as  Game  fowls  are  kept  for  their  beauty 
more  than  for  their  value  otherwise.  But  no  otlier  fowl  has  sweeter 
flesh,  or  richer  flavored  eggs,  and  for  use  on  the  tables  of  farmers 
who  love  quality  before  size,  the  old  fashioned  Brown  Bed  Game  wiU 
certainly  please.  Thei'e  are  more  vai-ieties  of  games  than  any  other 
class,  no  less  than  twelve  being  bred  by  fanciers.  The  viciousness  of 
these  fowls,  however,  debars  many  i^ersons  from  keeping  them,  as  a 
game  cock  will  suffer  no  rival  to  Uve  within  his  domain  if  he  is  able- 
to  destroy  him. 


The  small  fowls  known  as  bantams  ai'e  very  pleasing  as  pets  and  for 
ornamental  purposes,  and  a  little  bantam  hen,  no  larger  than  a  jjigeon,^ 
with  her  tiny  brood,  makes  a  pretty  pictiu-e  upon  a  farm  lawn,  and  is. 


JAPAN  BANTAMS. 


the  deUght  of  the  cluldren.  There  ai-e  many  varieties  of  these,  some 
of  which  have  been  gi'eatly  improved  by  an  Enghsh  baronet.  Sir  John 
Sebright,  whose  name  has  been  given  to  the  varieties  which  he  has 
bred  to  perfection:  as  the  Golden  and  Silver  Sebrights.     The  eggs 


238  How  THE  Farji  Pays. 

of  these  little  fowls  are  remarkably  rich  in  flavor,  and  for  the  table 
are  considered  the  best  of  any  fowl  or  bii-d.  A  very  cuiioiis  vaiiety^ 
black  and  white  in  color,  has  recently  been  brought  fi'om  Japjxn,  and 
sold  as  hipli  as  $50  the  paur.  The  demand  for  them  at  this  price  has 
however  been  tilled,  but  they  stiU  sell  at  large  prices,  compared  with 
their  size.  In  breeiling  these  small  fowls.  ever\'  circumstance  that 
•win  tend  to  keep  them  do'mi  in  size  is  taken  advantage  of,  and  the 
broods  are  not  hatched  until  the  fall,  so  as  to  stunt  the  gi-owth  of  the 
chicks  as  much  as  possible  by  the  cold  weather. 


These  fine  fowl  are  found  very  pi'ofitable  when  cii'cumstances  per- 
mit special  care  to  be  given  to  them.  As  a  rule  the  housewife  suc- 
ceeds best  in  the  management  of  poultry,  and  the  turkeys  always  fail 
to  her  share,  as  one  other  especial  perquisites.  There  is  liut  one  variety 
of  turkey  which  is  worth  keeping  on  the  farm  when  prolit  is  the  main 
pursuit.  This  is  the  Bronze  vaiiety,  a  cross  of  the  wild  native  breed. 
It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  tvu'key  is  a  native  American  fowl, 
and  was  unknown  in  Eui'ope  until  after  its  introduction  from  this 
continent.  The  wild  tui'key  is  now  the  finest  variety  existing,  and  is 
sometimes  foiiud  weighing  forty  f)ounds,  and  is  fi-equently  taken  of 
a  weight  of  twenty  pounds.  The  cross  of  tliis  bird  with  the  connuon 
black  variet}',  which  has  been  made  in  i-ecent  years,  has  given  us  the 
Bronze  Turkey,  and  specimens  of  this  breed  have  reached  over  forty 
pounds  and  occasionally  near  fifty.  It  is  hardy,  but  retains  its  wild 
instincts,  and  loves  to  hide  its  nest,  and  does  far  better  in  that  way.  The 
young  birds,  or,  as  they  are  cuUed,  "  poults, "  require  a  good  deal  of  care 
in  slielter  fi"om  rain  and  cold  weather,  andin  proper  feeding.  Chop])ed 
clover  and  young  onions,  coarse  oat  meal  and  cracked  corn,  are  the 
best  food.  One  visit  of  the  male  to  a  flock  of  hens  is  sufficient,  and  a 
Len  thus  attended  will  even  lay  and  hatch  a  second  brood  without 
fuither  service.  Corn  meal  and  o;it  meal  scalded  with  hot  sweet  milk 
make  the  best  fattening  food. 

W.VTIOU    FOWL. 

Geese  desei-ve  a  passing  thought,  if  only  at  those  times  when  we 
recline  comfortably  ujion  the  soft  beds  made  of  their  feathers.  They 
are  more  properly  called  wel)-f()oted  fowl,  because  they  can  be  reared 
as  easily  out  of  the  water  as  with  it,  and  perhaps  better.  As  market 
fowl  they  are  reared  with  good  profit,  and  are  very  easily  kept  Being 
very  close  graziers  they  require  a  grass  field  wholly  to  themselves; 


Geese  .\nd  Ducks. 


239 


and  if  they  have  a  good  pastiu'e  they  will  need  no  other  food  until 
they  are  jJut  up  to  fatten,  when  twenty  days'  feeding  with  corn  will 
put  them  in  good  condition  for  market.  The  gosUngs  are  Yerj  hardy 
and  the  goose  is  an  excellent  mother,  although  very  stubborn  in  her 
disposition,  so  that  once  she  has  chosen  her  nest  she  wdU  tate  no  other, 
but  will  sit  out  her  time,  if  with  only  a  paving  stone  under  her. 
There  are  two  prominent  varieties:  the  Toulouse,  which  is  gray  and 
is  the  largest  of  aU  kinds,  and  the  Embden,  which  is  j)ure  white. 
The  best  time  to  market  geese  is  at  the  Christmas  holidays. 

Ducks  are  jjrolitable  when  well  managed,  but  under  other  circum- 
stances wUl  eat  thi-ee  times  their  value  of  food.  AMien  the  young 
duckUngs  are  fed  properly,  and  are  forced,  so  as  to  be  ready  for 
market  at  ten  to  twelve  weeks  old,  or  sooner  wdth  some  vaiieties,  they 


are  quite  profitable.  There  ai'e  several  kinds.  Tlie  Pekin  is  a  large 
white  variety  and  quite  prolific,  but,  like  all  profitable'farm  animals, 
it  is  a  great  eater.  The  Aylesbiu-y  is  also  jjure  wliite,  and,  when  fat, 
will  weigh  six  pounds  at  four  months  old.  It  grows  very  rapidly 
when  weU  fed.  The  Kouen  is  a  gray  duck,  and  the  di-ake  is  beauti- 
fully marked  with  golden  green,  steel-blue  and  brown.  It  is  a  large 
duck,  weighing  eight  to  ten  pounds  when  fat,  and  is  a  quick  fee'der. 
The  most  profitable  way  to  rear  ducks  is  as  follows:  The  old  ducks 
ai'e  kejst  shut  up  at  night  until  they  have  laid  their  eggs,  which  they 
usually  do  about  dayUght.  Thej'  are  then  turned  out,  and  a  wet, 
mucky  swamj),  or  a  gi-eeu  meadow  with  ditches  in  it,  provides  them  a 
very  desu'able  feeding  groimd.  At  night,  when  they  come  in,  they 
should  be  fed,  and  at  no  other  times.  Corn,  oats,  barley  and  buck- 
wheat are  suitable  food.     The  eggs  are  gathered  every  morning  and 


240  How  THE  F.utM  Pays. 

set  undei-  hens,  giving  nine  only  to  each  nest  ^^"llen  the  ducklings 
are  hatched  they  ai-c  left  with  the  hen  for  a  day  or  two,  and  then  put 
alone  in  small  pens,  made  of  a  frame  of  boards  twelve  inches  wide 
and  about  four  feet  square.  They  cannot  escape  from  this,  and  are 
provided  with  a  small  covered  shelter  at  one  comer,  where  they  may  be 
enclosed  at  nighi  The  food  should  be  at  first  boiled  com  meal  and 
oat  meal,  with  chopped  lettuce  and  young  cabbage  and  onion& 
A  shallow  pan  covered  over  with  coarse  wii-e  netting,  so  that  they 
cannot  bathe  in  it,  should  be  kept  furnished  with  clean  water  three 
times  a  day,  and  the  young  ducks  must  be  fed  every  two  hours, 
With  this  feeding  they  will  weigh  four  pounds  at  twelve  weeks  old  and 
sell  for  $1.50  to  S2  the  pair.  They  ai-e  then  quite  profitable;  but 
every  day  they  are  kept  beyond  this  weight  reduces  the  profit.  The 
old  ducks  may  be  left  to  forage  for  themselves  until  the  winter,  when 
they  maj'  be  fed  with  the  geese' upon  chopped  turnips,  oats  and  com. 


DOGS  FOR  THE   FARM. 

Perhaps  the  only  breed  of  dogs  that  can  be  said  to  be  of  much  service 
on  the  faiTu  is  the  Scotch  CoUie,  which  has  been  recently  introduced 
here  in  considerable  numbers,  and  is  in  great  demand  from  all  sec- 
tions of  the  counti-y.  It  is  not  only  an  excellent  farm  dog,  but  is 
almost  indispensable  to  the  sheep  or  cattle  raiser.  I  have  used  them 
on  my  farm  for  the  jjast  thirty  yeai-s  and  can  well  attest  the  mjuiy 
tales  of  theii"  wonderful  sagacity.  The  cut  given  of  myimjjorted  dog, 
"  Sport,"  the  -winner  of  many  jiiizes  and  one  of  the  best  dogs  ever 
imported,  will  show  the  distinctive  points  of  the  Collie.  He  is  broad 
in  the  forehead;  ears  far  apaii,  and  st:md  straight  at  the  base  with  the 
tips  inclined  downwai'ds  when  in  repose,  but  when  vmder  orders 
straight  up  iu  the  attitude  of  the  closest  attention.  His  eye  is  bright 
and  has  an  intelligent  look;  face  long;  muzzle  rather  fine;  head  cov- 
ered with  fine  hair;  neck  rather  short;  fore  legs  short  but  sb'ong, 
hind  legs  much  longer  but  generally  crooked,  which  gives  him  good 
running  ])ower,  as  all  dogs  on  the  Scotch  hill  fiums  have  to  run  a  good 
deal.  The  feet  ai-e  flat  and  they  have  the  extra  claw  on  the  hind  leg 
called  the  "  Dew  claw."  The  tail  is  long  and  bushy,  and  should  always 
be  cuiTed  downwards  lower  than  the  back.  The  color  varies;  iu 
some  it  is  black,  othei-s  black  and  white,  and  others  black,  white  and 
tan.  There  is  also  a  rough  hau-ed  CoUie,  much  used  by  cattle  tli-overs. 
Some  of  them  resemble  the  fox  in  color  and  have  sandy  hail-.  A 
few  yeai-s  ago  Queen  Victoria  had  a  nimiber  of  piue  black  and  tan 
Collies,  which  I  saw  at  Balmoral.     They  were  pretty,  but  I  am  of  the 


Fabm  Dogs. 


241 


opinion  that  they  had  been  crossed  with  the  black  and  tan  Setter  dog. 
This  may  not  have  been  the  case,  but  it  seemed  to  me  the  only  plausible 
explanation  for  the  absence  of  that  foxy  look  which  is  characteristic 
of  all  piire  Collies. 

In  the  north  of  England  and  borders  of  Scotland  the  Gordon  Setter  has 
been  used  as  a  cross  and  at  our  shows  these  invariably  take  the  j^rize 


against  oiu-  pure  CoUies.  But  although  handsomer,  they  are  by  no 
means  so  valuable  for  sheep  as  the  pure  CoUie.  The  price  paid  for 
Collie  pups  is  from  $10  to  $15;  and  trained  dogs  of  pm-e  breed 
range  from  $.50  to  $100. 

In  the  rough  hau-ed  CoUie,  under  his  outer  coat  of  long  hair  he  has  a 
coat  of  fine,  short  close  hair,  which  protects  him  from  stoi-ms.  The 
intelligence  of  the  pure   Collie  is  almost  beyond  beUef.     One  of  my 


242  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

young  Collies  took  a  great  liking  to  the  cattle,  so  much  so  that  she 
would  reiniiiu  in  the  Held  all  day  with  them,  keeping  all  strangers  out 
of  the  i^asture.  One  Sunday  not  long  since  a  neighbor  went  into 
the  lot  to  tiike  a  look  at  the  cows,  hut  the  dog  attacked  him  and 
actually  di-ove  him  out  of  the  field.  They  are  speciidly  fond  of 
chUdreu,  and  are  usually  excellent  watch  dogs.  In  driving  cattle, 
instead  of  catching  the  tail  of  the  animal  as  other  dogs  invariably  do, 
they  wUl  nip  the  heels  and  di'aw  back  quickly  out  of  danger  of  being 
kicked.  They  display  a  degree  of  intelligence  seemingly  far  Ijeyond 
instinct.  "When  di'iving  sheep,  if  one  sliould  turn  on  him,  as  ewes 
■with  voimg  lambs  very  often  will  do,  the  ColUe  does  not  resent  it,  but 
wUl  tm-n  quietly  aside  and  lie  down  until  the  sheep  retui-ns  to  the 
flock,  when  he  will  go  on  driving  them.  One  of  my  old  dogs  once  kept 
a  ewe  and  her  lamb  apart  in  a  five-acre  lot  from  morning  until  even- 
ing without  injiu'v  to  either.  The  same  dog,  after  being  taken  twice  to 
bring  the  sheep  fi-om  the  pasture  to  the  yard  at  five,  P.  M.,  went  of 
his  own  accord  every  evening  afterwards  and  brought  them  into  the 
yard,  fullj'  half  a  mile  away,  part  of  the  way  thi-ough  wood  land,  never 
vaiTing  more  than  fifteen  minutes  of  five  o'clock,  at  which  time  he 
delivered  them  in  the  yard. 

The  CoUie  is  eminently  practical  in  his  notions  and  seems  to  enjoy 
nothing  so  much  as  jserforming  his  duties  with  the  sheep  or  cattle, 
but  he  can  be  taught  tricks,  though  I  doubt  if  he  is  over  fond  of 
showing  off  his  accompUshments  in  this  direction.  My  little  girl  five 
years  old  can  ask  "  Coxsie  "  to  jump  over  a  chau-,  haul  her  on  a  sled 
or  go  over  a  fence,  which  he  will  do,  but  if  asked  by  one  of  the  men 
or  boys  he  will  skulk  off  and  lie  down.  "When  called  for  the  cows  or 
sheep,  however,  he  is  right  np,  and  ■n-ill  leave  his  best  meal  for  either  duty. 

Another  instance  which  shows  a  pecidiar  jshase  of  its  natiu-al  instinct 
occuiTed  in  a  city,  where  a  goat  was  kept  by  a  resident.  This  goat 
had,  in  the  usual  manner  of  these  creatures,  committed  depredations 
in  flower  beds  and  upon  shade  ti'ees,  and  the  owner  had  been  severely 
censured  in  consequence.  He  owned  one  of  the  rough  Colhe  dogs, 
wliich,  however,  had  never  been  trained,  but  which,  after  one  lesson 
given  by  his  owner,  accompanied  tlie  goat  in  its  daily  rounds 
about  the  vacant  lots  upon  which  it  browsed,  and  prevented  it  from 
injiu-ing  trees  or  trespassing  into  the  gai-dens.  The  dog  lay  down 
neai-  the  goat  while  it  fed,  and  as  it  moved  kept  closely  behind  it  and 
brought  it  home  safely  every  evening.     Tliis  it  did  dail}-  for  years. 

(ilr.  H.)  The  Collie  does  seem  to  have  almost  human  reason.  I 
had  a  Collie  pup  from  a  breed  that  originally  came  ft-om  you,  a  hand- 
some black  and  tan.  ^Vhen  I  got  him  he  was  about  three  months  old. 
It  happened  that  a  litter   of   kittens  anived  about  the  same  time. 


The  Instinct  of  the  Scotch  Coixie.  243 

""Wattie,"  as  we  called  him,  observed  the  old  cat  now  and  then 
carrying  her  kittens  from  jjlace  to  place,  and  he  took  it  into  his  head 
to  help  her,  but  singularly  enough  never  offered  to  carry  any  but 
one — a  httle  black  fellow.  The  cat  cairied  her  kittens,  as  cats  do, 
only  with  some  definite  purpose  to  hide  them,  but  Wattie  seemed  to 
have  no  such  purpose  with  the  black  kitten  he  appropriated,  and 
seemingly  did  so  only  for  mischief,  for  he  kept  at  it  even  after  the 
black  kitten  had  got  to  be  a  sedate,  full  gi-own  puss.  She  never  re- 
sented it,  and  seemed  to  have  as  much  satisfaction  in  being  cairied 
around  as  Wattie  had  in  caii-ving  her.  We  got  him  so  trained  that 
if  we  ordered  him  to  "bring  the  black  cat,"  even  if  a  hundred  yards 
away,  he  bounded  towards  her,  and  taking  her  tenderly  by  the  back 
of  the  neck  brought  her  aU  curled  up  to  our  feet.  It  was  a  curious 
feature  in  the  CoUie,  for  he  is  not  usually  a  can'yiug  dog.  Another 
very  comical  practice  of  Wattle's  was  his  encoiu-agement  of  tramps. 
If  a  tramp  made  his  ai^pearance  at  the  gate,  if  Wattie  happened  to  be 
around  he  gave  him  to  understand  bj-  his  gambols  that  he  was  safe 
and  welcome,  his  practice  being  to  inm  ahead  of  him  and  show  him 
the  way  to  the  basement.  One  morning  tramps  were  more  than 
usually  plentiful,  and  when  Wattie  had  introduced  the  third  one  to 
the  cook  for  breakfast  her  patience  became  exhausted  and  she  re- 
monstrated with  him,  exclaiming:  "Goodness,  beast!  what  do  you 
mean?  This  is  the  tliii-d  one  you've  brought  this  morning."  But  it 
was  discovered  that  Uke  too  many  of  his  masters,  Wattie  had  an  axe 
to  grind  in  his  seeming  hospitality,  for  the  tramps  were  in  the  habit 
of  giving  him  a  part  of  their  breakfast.  Another  true  trait  of  the 
CoUie  was  possessed  by  Wattie.  We  had  him  trained  so  that  we 
could  send  him  to  hide  behind  the  house  and  return  at  oui'  call  a 
score  of  times  in  as  many  minutes.  He  undoubtedly  knew  the 
meaning  of  simple  words,  for  if  ordered  to  go  and  hide  in  the  most 
ordinary'  tone  of  voice,  without  even  looking  at  him,  he  never  failed 
to  do  so,  returning  fr-om  his  hiding  place  on  being  told  just  as 
promptly  as  a  child  of  five  or  six  years  old  would  do.  He  was  bit  by 
a  rabid  dog  and  I  had  to  shoot  him.  I  don't  beheve  I  would  have 
exchanged  him  for  the  most  valuable  Jersey  cow  in  youi-  herd. 

USEFUL  TABLES   FOR  THE   FARM. 

The  following  table  of  proper  quantities  of  farm  seeds  for  an  acre 
of  ground  will  often  be  found  useful  for  reference.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  quantities  are  somewhat  more  than  is  usual  in 
tables  of  this  character;  but  we  have  found  that  it  is  always  safest 
not  to  risk  the  wehare  of  a  crop  for  a  little  extra  seed: 


244  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


TABLE   OF   PROPER   QUANTITIES   OF   FARM   SEEDS  FOR   AN   ACRE. 

Winter  WTieat,  broadcast 2    to  2|  bush. 

"       driUed 1  •"  li     " 

Spring  Wheat,  broadcast 2^    "3       " 

drilled 1^    "  2       " 

Barley,  broadcast i 2     "2^     " 

drilled 14    "  2       " 

Oats,  broadcast 3     "4       " 

"      driUed 2      «  24     " 

Rye,  broadcast 2  " 

"      diilled 1     "  li     " 

Orchard  Grass  (if  sown  alone,  though 

it  never  should  be  sown  except  in 

mixture) 3      "4       " 

Timothy,  or  Herds  Grass  (when  sown 

with  grain  in  the  fall,  to  be  followed 

with  Clover  in  the  spring) 12  to  15  qts. 

Timothy  without  Clover IG    "    18    " 

Eed  Toj),  or  Brown  Top,  broadcast.  .  3    bush. 

Blue  Grass,  broadcast 2       " 

Hungiu-ian  Millet 1       " 

Golden  Millet li     " 

Rea  Clover,  broadcast,  after  Timothy 

in  the  spring 10  to  12  qts. 

Red  Clover  without  other  grasses  in  the 

spring 15    "   18    " 

Lucern,  or  Alfalfa,  broadcast 15    "   20  lbs. 

di-illed 10 

White  Clover,  broadcast 8  lbs. 

Field  Corn,  in  hills,  small  varieties. ...  5  to     (i  qts. 

"  "  "  large         "       ....  (i    "      8    •• 

Field  Corn  for  fodder,  sown  in  drills 

34  feet  wide  and  1  foot  apart 2  bush. 

Oats  and  Peas,  when  sown  together  for 

fodder 2  bush,  of  each. 

Beets  and  Mangels,  in  drills  always,  30 

inches  ajmrt fi  to  7  lb& 

Carrots,  in  tb'ills  always,  24  in.  apart .  .  2    "   3    " 
Turnips  and  Ruta  Bagas,  in  drills  30 

inches  apart .  2  lbs. 


UsEFCL  Tables.  245 

TABLE  OF  PROPER  QUANTITIES  OF   FARM   SEEDS   FOR   AN 
ACRE. — Contin  ued. 

Pai-snips,  in  drills  2  feet  apart 6  to  8  lbs. 

Beans,  in  drills  24  feet  apart 2  bush. 

Peas,  planted  alone  without  any  mix- 
ture, in  drills  3  feet  apart 3  bush. 

Potatoes,  in  di-Uls  3  feet  apart 12  to  1-i  bush. 

In  the  vicinity  of  New  York  rotted  stable  manure  is  usually  sold 
"by  the  load  of  2,000  pounds;  but  in' the  Eastern  States  the  measure- 
ment is  made  by  the  cord,  eoiitaining  usually  two  and  one-half  to 
three  loads,  or  5,000  to  6,000  pounds,  much  depending  ufion  the 
condition  of  the  manure. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  trees  or  plants  that  can  be  planted 
on  an  acre  at  the  distances  apart  giyen : 

30x30    feet 48 

25  x25      "    69 

20  x20      "    108 

19  xl9      "    120 

18  xl8      "    134 

17  xlT      "    150 

16  xl6      "   170 

15  xl5      "   193 

14  xl4      "   222 

13  xl3      "   257 

12  xl2      "   302 

11  xll      "   360 

10  xlO      "   435 

9x9      "   537 

8x8      "   680 

7x7      "   888 

6ix  61    "   1,031 

6x6      "   1,210 

5ix5i      "    1,417 

0x5      "    1,742 

5x4      "   2,179 

5x3      "    2,904 

5x2      "    : 4,356 

5x1      "    9,712 

4x4      "    2.722 

4x3      "    3,630 

4x2      "   5,445 

4x1      " 10,890 

3x3      "    4,840 

3x2      "   7,260 

3x1      "    14,520 

2x2      "    10,890 

2x1      "    21,780 

1x1      "    43,560 


246  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

The  number  of  hours  required  for  the  rising  of  cream  at  the 
different  temperatures  ai-e  found  by  actual  experiment  in  our  dairy 
to  be  as  follows: 

At  45  degrees,  in  deep  pails  set  in  ice  water,  as 

used  in  oui-  dairj",  aU  the  cream  will  rise  in .  . .  12  hrs. 

50  degrees 14: 

55       "        16   " 

At  62  degrees,  in  shallow  pans,  in 24   " 

"55       "  "  "    30   " 

"50       "  "  "     36   " 

It  is  an  ascertained  fact,  in  this  respect,  that  the  sudden  cooling  of 
the  milk  set  in  deep  pails  in  ice  water  is  the  cause  of  the  rapid  rising 
of  the  cream;  if  the  pails  are  set  in  the  aii-,  and  not  in  water,  and  ai-e 
consequently  cooled  very  slowly,  the  cream  will  not  rise  completely 
in  forty-eight  houis  at  the  same  low  temperature. 
A  cord  contains  128  cubic  feet. 
A  cubic  foot  contains  1,728  cubic  inches. 
A  struck  bushel  contains  2,150  cubic  inches. 
A  heaped  bushel  contains  2, 750  cubic  inches. 
An  acre  contains  43,5G0  square  feet,  or  4,840  square  yards. 
A  square  acre  measui-es  very  nearly  70  yai-ds  or  210  feet  on  each, 
side. 

A  10-acre  field  is  40  rods,  or  220  yards,  or  660  feet,  on  each  side. 
To  double  the  length  of  the  side  makes  four  times  the  area  of  a 
field. 

A  circle  encloses  the  largest  space  of  any  figm-e  for  the  same  length 
of  line.  A  circular  cistern,  therefore,  is  the  cheapest.  The  following 
table  gives  the  difference  of 

AREAS  OF  SQUARE  AND  ROUND  CISTERNS. 
Kouiid. 


DIAMSTEB. 

I£MGXH   OF   WAJJU. 

ABKA   OP   BCBFACE. 

10  feet. 
12     " 
15     " 

31 J  feet. 
37i     " 
47       " 

78i  sq.  feet. 
112 
177 

Sguare. 

DIAMETKB. 

I.EKOTH  OF  WAU.. 

AKEA  OF  SUBFACE. 

8  feet. 
10     " 
12     " 

32  feet. 
40     " 

48     " 

64  sq.  feet. 
100 
144 

Useful  T.vbles. 


247 


Twice  the  diameter  of  a  circle  or  a  square  gives  foiu-  times  the  ai-ea 
in  square  feet;  twice  the  diameter  of  a  cube  gives  eight  times  the  soUd 
contents  in  cubic  feet;  half  the  diameter  gives  one-fourth  of  the  ai-ea, 
or  one-eighth  of  the  cubic  contents. 

LEGAL  BUSHELS  OF  VARIOUS  ARTICLES  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  STATES. 


48 


Maine 

New  Hamj)shu-e 

YeiTQont. 

Massachusetts 

Connecticut 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

District  of  Columbia. . .  . 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carohna 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Louisiana 

Ai-kansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Ohio../. 

Michigan. 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin. ...    j48]50 

ilinnesota 4842 

Iowa 48  52 

Missoiui 48  .52 

Kansas ,50  50 

Nebraska j48  52 

Cahfomia J50'40 

Oregon 46{42l 


^ 

c> 

48 


,0:0  .o  a, 


5052130 

50  .  .  30| 

..\.M% 

50  52  32 

.  28 
.32 
.130 
.,30 


ft?'Fi&^  a; 


57  32 
57  32 
..  32 
.  .  32 
46  .  .  30 
50:57  33 
48  75  35 
..I..  32 
.50  57  32 
.50  5032 
50  57  33 
.  .  50  32 
54  32 
48  32 
32 
32 
32 
..57  33 
.57  32 
50  57  32 
50  57  34 
....32 
..i..|36 


60 
56  60 
56  60 
60  56  60 
6056  56 
60  56  60 
60.5660 
56^5660 
....  [60 
60  56  60 
56.56  60 
60,5660 
60  56  60 
. ,  56  60 
(JO  56  60 
.56  .  .  60 
.  .32  60 
00.56  60 
6(150  60 

5(;5i;(;(i 

(!0|5(;  (JO 
loo!  56  60 
J6OI5O  60 
160156  60 
60|56  60 
60  56  60 
60  56  6O1 
60  56  60' 
60  .56  (30 
60  56  60 
L  .  54  60 
|60i56i60! 


60 


64 

60  ,  . 
64  60 


6260 

..64 
..62 


42 


44 


62  64  45 

55  62  60  45 

56  60  64,45 
60  60  60|45 

.  . ' . .  (54! .  . 
.  .|60  60:.  . 
60,45 


70 


85 


60!60l45  50 
6O!.  .'45  .. 
60  60  45  50 
60  60  45 
58  60  60  45 
60  60! . . 
60  601 .  . 
..  60  . , 

. .  'eo' . . 

60  60  45.50 
. .  |60  60  45  50 
55  60,60  45  50 
.55  60  60  45,50 


.  .  .  .  60: .  , 


A  ton  of  Timothy  hay,  in  stack  or  mow,  well  pressed,  measui-es  480 
cubic  feet,  or  6x8x10  feet. 


248 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


A  ton  of  mixed  Timothy  and  Clover  measures  520  feet. 
A  ton  of  mixed  meadow  grasses  measui'es  600  feet. 
A  ton  of  loose  straw  measiires  900  feet. 

STRENGTH  OF  ROPES. 

A  good  rope  wiU  sustain  a  weight  in  j)ounds  equal  to  the  numoer 
of  the  square  of  the  circumference  in  inches,  multiplied  by  200.  Thus 
a  rope  3  inches  in  cii'cumference,  or  1  inch  in  thickness,  will  sustain 
1,800  pounds  with  safety.  (For  instance,  3X3=9X200=1,800.)  This 
would  be  equal  to  the  draft  strength  of  12  horses. 

WEIGHT   OF  LEAD   PIPES    PER   FOOT. 


D1AUET2B. 

SO.  1. 

NO.  2. 

NO.   3. 

^  inch. 

*  " 

1     " 

H    " 

^*  :: 

2i     " 

1  lb.    1  oz. 

1  "      8    " 

2  lbs. 

3  " 

4  " 

5  "     9  oz. 
7   " 

lib.    12  oz. 

2  lbs.  11  " 

3  "     11  " 

4  "     11  " 

7  " 

8  "       9  " 

2  lbs. 

2   "    Uoit.. 

4  "      7    " 

5  '■      9   '• 
8    "      5   " 

10   " 

One  foot  of  1-inch  round  iron  rod  weighs. 
"        "  "       square     "       "  " 


2.63  lbs. 
3.36    " 


For  lesser  sizes  divide  the  weight  by  foui',  for  half  the  size,  and  for 
larger,  multiply  by  four-,  for  twice  the  size. 


MAN  AND   HORSE   POWER. 

An  average  man  can  draw  a  weight  of  27^  pounds  over  a  pulley  at 
the  rate  of  220  feet  per  minute. 

An  average  horae  can  draw  a  weight  of  150  pounds  over  a  pulley 
for  a  depth  of  220  feet  in  one  minute.  This  is  equivalent  to  raising 
33,000  2)ounds  one  foot  high  in  a  minute,  and  is  a  standai-d  horse- 
power. 

To  find  the  horse-power  of  a  steam  engine,  multiply  the  pressure 
of  steam  per  inch  by  the  area  in  inches  of  the  cyUnder;  multiply 
this  product  by  the  length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and  this 
product  by  the  number  of  strokes  per  minute ;  divide  the  result  by 
33,000.  Thus,  an  engine  working  at  30  pounds  pressiu-e  per  inch, 
with  a  cylinder  of  8|  inches  diameter,  and  55  square  inches  ai"ea  of 


Useful  Tables. 


249 


piston,    and  making  100  strokes  of  2  feet  each  per  minute,   is  10 
horse-power  (or  30X55X100X2=330,000  -^  33,000=10). 

QU.U^TITY  AND   WEIGHT  OF   WATER  IN  SIX  FEET  OF  PIPE  OF 


pomros. 

GALLONS 

0.5 

0.06 

2.05 

0.24 

4.60 

0.54 

8.18 

0.96 

18.11 

2.16 

32.72 

3.84 

I  iucli  diameter. 

1  • 
li    •' 

2  " 

3  " 

4  " 

(For  double  the  diameter  multiply  contents  4  times.) 

One  ban-el  of  cement  and  two  baiTels  of  sand  will  make  mortar 
sufficient  for  600  to  700  bricks. 

One  baiTel  of  cement  to  4  of  sand  and  gravel  will  make  9  square 
yards  of  concrete  floor  3  inches  thick. 

A  baiTel  of  lime  with  10  bushels  of  sand  will  make  mortar  for 
1,000  bricks. 

A  baiTel  of  lime  and  10  bushels  of  sand  will  make  plaster  for  40 
square  yards  of  sui-face ;  half  a  bushel  of  long  hau-,  or  a  half  more 
of  short  hair,  will  be  required. 

One  hundred  laths  and  500  nails  wiU  cover  4^  square  yards. 

A  hod  of  mortar  is  half  a  bushel. 

A  squai'e  yard  of  plastering  requires  three-fourths  of  a  bushel. 

Twenty-three  and  one-half  cubic  feet  of  sand,  17^  of  clay  or  18  of 
gi'avel  weigh  one  ton. 

A  cubic  yard  of  soUd  gi'ound  equals  1^  cubic  yards  when  dug. 

CONTENTS  OF  A  ROUND  CISTERN  IN  GALLONS  AND  NUMBER  OF  BRICKS 
REQUIRED  FOR  EACH  FOOT  IN  DEPTH. 


8    feet  diameter 


81 

<. 

9 

< 

9i 

< 

10 

<c 

11 

12 

•< 

13 

< 

U 

< 

15 

■ 

GiLLONS. 

B.1EHELS. 

BRICKS. 

376 

m 

292 

424 

14 

308 

480 

15f 

326 

533 

m 

340 

579 

19 

360 

690 

23 

418 

840 

28 

452 

992 

33 

484 

1,151 

381 

520 

1,321 

44 

559 

260  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


STONE  WOKK,   CEMENT  AND  MORTAR. 

One  perch  of  stone  work  is  24|  cubic  feet,  or  16J  scjuare  feot,  18 
inches  thick. 

One  squai'e  foot  of  8-iu<'li  wall  requires  IG  brick. 
"       12     "       "  "        24     " 

IG     "       ■'  "        32     " 

18     "      ."  "        3G     " 


The  Pests  of  the  Fabm.  251 


CHAPTER  IX. 


THE  PESTS  OF   THE   FARM. 

The  various  pests  which  annoy  and  injure  the  fanner  include 
animals,  insects  and  vegetables.  In  enumerating  the  worst  of  these, 
the  difficulty  is  in  considering  what  may  be  left  out,  rather  than  what 
should  be  put  into  the  list,  so  gi-eat  a  legion  of  them  ai-e  there.  In. 
consideriag  this  important  part  of  farm  knowledge,  however,  we  may 
divide  the  subject  into  two  parts,  viz.:  Pests  Injurious  to  Farm 
Animals,  and  Pests  Injurious  to  Farm  Crops. 


It  is  right  to  include  the  dog  among  the  pests  of  the  farm,  although 
the  fault  is  rather  in  the  owner  than  in  the  animal  itself.  The  dog, 
for  its  sagacity  and  its  friendly  and  docile  disposition,  deserves  to  be 
weU  cared  for,  well  trained,  and  kept  in  safe  subjection.  It  is  the 
neglected  dog,  of  low  and  high  degree  both,  which  is  jjermitted  to  run 
at  large  without  supervision,  and  which  consequently  falls  into  bad 
company  and  is  made  vicious,  that  becomes  the  destroyer  of  the  flock, 
and  does  more  to  prevent  the  profitable  keeping  of  sheej)  en  many 
thousands  of  farms  than  any  other  evil  to  which  sheep  are  subject; 
so  that  a  few  words  in  regard  to  the  proper  management  of  dogs 
will  be  all  that  may  be  required  under  this  head. 

Every  one  who  keeps  a  dog  should  first  choose  a  well  bred  animal; 
second,  feed  it  as  well  and  as  regularly  as  a  horse  or  cow  is  fed;  third, 
house  it  comfortably  in  a  roomy  and  clean  kennel,  with  a  yard  attached, 
for  exercise ;  fourth,  keep  it  under  strict  discipUne,  and  teach  it  its  duties ; 
fifth,  never  permit  it  to  roam  at  lat'ge;  and,  lastly,  after  its  duties  and 
sei-vice  have  been  performed  dming  the  day,  see  that  it  is  safely 
secured  during  the  night.  It  would  be  an  exceedingly  happj'  thing 
for  farmers  if  they  could,  by  their  influence,  procure  the  passage  of 
laws  to  enforce  some  such  regulation  as  the  last  of  these,  and  secure 
the  destruction  of  every  vagi'ant  animal  that  might  be  found  wan- 
dering abroad  unattended  and  in  i^m-suit  of  mischief.  "^Mien  this  is 
accomplished,  sheep  may  be  left  to  repose  in  the  pasture  with  safety. 


252  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

and  every  fai-mer  have   his  flock,  larger  or   smallei,  as  a  soiu'ce  of 
pleasure  and  profit 

The  dog  is,  unfortunately,  from  its  habit  of  feeding  upon  carrion, 
Terj'  much  infested  with  parasites,  and  especially  with  tape  worms, 
and  these  disagreeable  and  injurious  parasites  are  spread  by  dogs 
among  sheep  and  cattle,  and  even  among  human  beings,  to  an 
alarming  extent.  Among  sheep  these  worms  cause  large  losses 
every  year,  and  thousands  of  these  useful  animals  die  annually  from 
the  efifects  of  their  presence  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  This, 
Jiowever,  will  be  more  fuUy  refei-red  to  under  its  appro^jriate  head 
further  on.  Just  here  we  wiU  only  repeat  that  to  avoid  thi-s  iujuiy 
farm  dogs  should  be  prevented  from  devouring  dead  animals,  and 
should  be  as  regularlj-  fed,  upon  wholesome  food,  as  any  other  farm 
animal,  as  this  wLU  entireh-  prevent  the  otherwise  ever-present  risk 
of  damage  by  reason  of  these  parasites. 

EOT  FLIES. 

A  cuiious  genus  of  two-winged  fly,  known  as  CEstrus,  infest  horses, 
cattle  and  sheeji.  The  Horse  Bot  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  haii-s  of  the 
fore  legs,  the  breast  and  shoulders.  The  jjreseuce  of  the  eggs  upon 
the  hairs  seems  to  annoy  the  horse,  which  bites  at  the  paii,  and  so 
removes  the  eggs  fi-om  the  hau-s  to  the  mouth,  in  which  way  they 
gain  entrance  to  the  stomach.  Here  they  hatch  into  lai'ge  stout 
grubs  provided  with  strong  jaws,  by  which  they  take  fiiiu  hold  upon 
the  coat  of  the  stomach,  and  hve  by  sucking  the  purulent  matter  pro- 
duced by  the  inflammation  caused.  In  some  cases  these  ^^ests  exist 
in  this  way  by  huudi-eds,  covering  the  whole  wall  t)f  the  stomach  and 
actually  perforating  it  through  and  thi-ough,  of  coui-se  causing  death. 
At  other  times  but  a  few  may  be  found,  which  simply  cause  irritation 
and  disturbance  of  digestion,  with  attacks  of  colic.  There  seems  to 
be  no  remedy  but  to  protect  tlie  horse  fi-om  the  flies,  by  pro-viding 
the  fore  part  with  a  linen  covering,  or  by  carefully  scraping  the  eggs 
from  the  hairs  wdth  a  knife  edge,  or  removing  them  by  a  wet  sponge. 
The  fly  is  much  like  a  bee,  buzzes  about  the  hoi-se's  head,  in  its  at- 
tempts to  deposit  its  eggs,  much  to  the  animal's  annoyance. 

The  cattle  Gad  Fly  is  a  similar  insect,  but  operates  ilifierently.  It 
has  an  ovipositor  Avhich  it  thrusts  into  the  skin  of  the  animal  at  the 
loins,  and  deposits  an  egg  (about  July  and  August)  at  each  sting. 
The  sting  is  iiaiuful,  as  the  cattle  evince  gi'eat  terror  when  the  fly  is 
buzzing  about  them.  The  e>^g  hatches  in  the  skin,  and  makes  its  way 
into  the  flesh,  where  it  forms  a  buiTow  and  lives  upon  the  pus  which 
is  secreted.     About  midwmter  its  presence  is  obsen-ed  by  a  round 


BoT  Flies  of  Horses,  Cattle  ,\xd  Sheep. 


25? 


soft  tvunor  on  the  loins,  and  a  small  round  hole  in  the  skin  at  the 
centre  of  it.  In  the  early  spring  the  grubs  may  be  squeezed  out  of 
their  burrows,  and  a  Httle  later  force  themselves  out,  and  fall  to  the 
ground  and  burrow  into  it,  where  they  form  pupae,  or  chrj'saUdes, 
and  in  time  emerge  as  perfect  flies.  These  pests  should  be  removed 
from  the  cattle's  backs  and  destroyed.  There  is  no  other  practicable 
remedy.  In  the  West  the  gi-azing  cattle  are  so  tormented  by  these, 
flies,  that  the  hides  are  seriously  damaged  for  the  tanners'  use,  to  th& 


MATUBAI.  SIZE  A3a>  £NLABGEI>. 


extent  at  times  of  fifty  per  cent.  In  this  case  no  doubt  a  coating  of 
gi-ease  and  tar  on  the  backs  of  the  cattle  might  be  a  preventive, 
if  it  could  be  aiDpHed. 

The  Sheep  Bot  differs  from  the  other  two  in  its  manner  of  annoy- 
ance. It  deposits  a  living  larva  or  newly  hatched  egg,  Uke  that  of 
the  Flesh  Blow  Fly,  upon  the  sheep's  nostrils.  The  small  gi-ub  crawls 
up  the  nostril  into  the  nasal  sinus  and  there  attaches  itself  bj'  hooks, 
as  does  the  Horse  Bot  Fly  in  that  animal's  stomach.  Unless 
numerous,  these  grubs  seem  to  be  little  annoyance,  but  otherwise 
the  sheep  suffer  gi-eatly  and  exhibit  great  distress,  j^awing  the  gi'ound, 
snorting  and  running  about  in  frenzy.  As  with  the  others,  remedies 
are  only  preventive,  and  consist  in  smearing  the  sheej)'s  noses  with  a 
mixture  of  tar  and  grease,  which  remains  sticky,  and  retains  the  gi-ubs 
upon  its  surface.  A  few  fiuTOws  plowed  in  the  field  sei-ve  as  a  jilace 
of  secvu'ity  for  the  sheep,  who  instinctively  push  their  noses  into  the. 


254  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

soil  and  so  cover  them  with  ilrv,  adherent  dust,  which  cripples  or  kills 
the  grubs.  That  these  pests  may  be  recognized  when  seen  the 
■accompanying  engravings  of  them  are  given. 

LICE,   FLEAS  AND  OTHER  PARASITES. 

It  is  a  well  ascertained  fact  that  all  the  parasitical  vermin,  both 
■external  and  internal,  which  infest  our  fmm  animals,  are  greatly 
encouraged  by  that  jjoor,  low  condition  of  health  which  results  from 
■want  of  care,  i^oor  shelter  and  esposui-e,  insufficient  feeding,  filth,  and 
other  injurious  circumstances  which  depress  the  vital  force  and 
-weaken  the  animals.  It  may  be,  and  undoubtedly  is,  quite  ti'ue,  that 
these  pests  spread  from  such  unhealthfid  animals,  and  infest  and 
annoy  those  who  are  stronger  and  more  robust,  but  the  starting  point 
is  fai-  more  often  such  as  we  have  said,  rather  than  even  by  contact, 
because  these  parasites  do  not  find  the  necessai-y  subsistence  in  the 
liealthy  sec-retious  of  robust  animals,  or  are  soon  driven  off  liy  im- 
mediate precautious,  while  the  diseased  matter  from  the  skin  or 
membranes  of  unhealthy  animals  fui'nishes  i^reeisely  the  needed  pabu- 
lum for  the  gi-owth  and  increase  of  the  parasites. 

"Without  unnecessarily  describing  these  parasites,  then,  we  will 
merely  mention  the  foUowLug  as  t_\-pes,  vi'r.,  Uee,  fleas,  taj^e  worms, 
intestinal  worms,  liver  flukes  of  sheep;  lung  and  bronchial  worms  of 
young  animals,  as  lambs,  calves,  and  chickens  (the  last  are  known  as 
gapes),  and  the  dreaded  scab  of  sheep,  and  mange  of  horses,  cattle 
and  dogs.  And  the  first  remark  that  may  be  made  is  that  these  are 
all  easily  preventible  by  strict  sanitai-y  precautions;  thorough  cleanh- 
ness  of  skin,  stable,  pastui'e,  soil,  water,  food  and  atmosphere ;  and, 
of  course,  by  the  careful  avoidance  of  contagion.  "When  it  is  necessary 
to  apply  remedies,  any  kind  of  oil  and  sulphur  mixed  and  applied  to 
the  skin  will  be  found  effective  for  external  vennin,  while  linseed  oil 
and  turpentine  are  efiective  against  all  internal  parasites. 

Some  of  these  pests,  however,  are  so  destructive,  that  some  fvu-ther 
notice  of  them  would  be  useful.  Sheep  are  especially  toi-mented  by 
parasites,  which  spread  from  one  animal  to  another  uutd  the  whole 
flock  is  infested.  Mid  the  pastui'es  even  may  be  so  infected  as  to  be 
wholly  useless.  The  first  of  these  pests  to  be  noticed,  although  not 
the  worst,  is  the  Tick.  This  is  a  reddish  brown,  leatheri'  skinned 
insect,  about  a  quai-ter  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  adheres  to  the  skin 
by  its  sharp  claws  and  lives  by  sucking  the  blood.  Sheep  are  some  • 
times,  and  lambs  fi-equently,  destroyed  by  these  insects  when  they 
are  numerous,  and  when  but  few  in  number,  they  gi'eatly  annoy  and 
impoverish  the  animals  by  the  pain  of  theii*  punctures  and  the  loss  of 


Pests  of  the  Sheep — Ticks,  Scab. 


255 


blood.  When  slieej)  are  shorn  the  Ticks  leave  them  and  go  onto  the 
lambs,  ■which  then  suffer  very  much.  At  this  time  they  may  he 
destroyed  with  ease  by  dipping  the  lambs  in  a  solution  to  be  hereafter 
described.  This  remedy  should  not  be  neglected,  as  no  flock  -will 
thrive  when  infested  with  Ticks.  The  insect  ^jroduces  a  living  pupa 
(see  engravings),  which  is  roimdish  and  red  in  color,  and  nearly  half 
as  large  as  the  Tick.  The  louse  is  also  a  gi-eat  pest  to  sheei>,  and  is 
destroyed  by  the  dijjijing. 

The  worst  pest  of  tbe  sheep,  however,  is  the  minute  Scab  Mite, 
invisible  except  when  di-opped  onto  white  paper,  when  it  appears  as 
fine  dust  which  moves.  When  a  lock  of  wool  from  a  scabby  sheep  is 
laid  upon  a  sheet  of  white  paper  this  moving  dust  is  seen,  and  this  is 
one  test  of  the  presence  of  the  disease  in  its  eaiiy  stages.  After  a 
time,  when  the  mites  have  burrowed  in  the  skin,  and  the  scabs  have 


Upper  Side. 

SHBEF  SCAB  ] 


formed,  the  sheei?  exhibits  a  sony  aspect.  The  wool  is  ragged  and 
loose,  and  in  places  is  torn  off  by  the  i-ubbing  of  the  sheep  against 
fences,  buildings  or  trees,  or  even  ujoon  the  ground,  when  nothing  else 
offers,  and  the  body  is  covered  in  places  with  rough  scabs  or  inflamed 
patches,  with  a  multitude  of  smaU,  watery  blisters.  These  blisters 
break  and  exude  a  yellowish  matter,  which  mats  the  wool  and  forms 
hard  crusts,  and  these  rapidly  spread,  untO,  hj  neglect,  the  sheep 
perishes  in  the  gTeatest  misery.  It  is  this  insect  which,  gathered  in 
the  wool,  to  which  some  of  the  scabs  and  crust  adheres,  attacks 
the  hands  of  the  wool  sorters,  and  produces  the  disease  kno'WTi  as  the 
wool  sorters'  itch.  It  is  akin  to  the  Itch  llite,  which  produces  the 
disease  known  as  the  itch,  which  so  much  troubles  persons  whose 
habits  are  the  reverse  of  cleanly.  The  engravings  show  the  character 
of  this  pest,  but  experience  alone  can  give  a  reahzing  knowledge  of 
its  injuriousness.  Sheep  have  died  by  thousands,  and  whole  flocks 
have  been  lost  from  its  ravages,  when  its  first  appearance  has  been 
neglected.  One  diseased  sheep  is  sufficient  to  cany  the  disease  into 
a  flock,  and  so  rapidly  does  it  spread  that  in  a  few  weeks  thousands 


256 


How  THE  Fa  KM  Pays. 


of  sheep  will  be  stricken  with  it.  Even  the  land  is  infested,  and  at 
least  two  j'ears  are  required  before  the  soO,  the  fences  and  the 
buildings  can  be  safely  used  for  another  flock. 

The  remedy  for  this  pest  is  to  dip  the  sheep  in  a  strong  decoction 
of  tobacco  and  sulphur.  Four  ounces  of  coai'se  tobacco  and  one  of 
sulphur  are  steeped  in  each  gallon  of  boihng  water — but  are  not  boiled — 
with  constant  stin-ing.     When   the   temperature  is   reduced  to  120 


degi-ees  each  sheep  is  plunged  into  the  liquid  and  held  in  it  all  except 
the  head  for  about  one  minute,  while  the  scabs  ai'e  broken  up  by  the 
hand  or  a  rough  cloth  or  hemp  rubber.  The  sheep  is  then  removed 
onto  a  draining  floor  from  which  the  drip  runs  back  into  the  dijiping 
vat  A  boiler  near  by  is  used  to  keep  a  supply  of  the  liquid  hot,  to 
replenish  and  maintain  the  lieat  of  the  dipjiiug  vat. 


Dipping  Sheep  to  Cure  Scab.  257 

The  above  plan  represents  the  arrangements  in  use  among  large 
flocks  for  doing  this  necessaiy  work.  As  it  is  done  every  year,  and 
twice  in  succession,  at  an  interval  of  foui-teen  days,  which  is  necessary 
to  destroy  the  newly  hatched  vermin  fi'om  eggs  which  have  escaped 
the  first  dipping,  the  yards  and  vats  should  be  permanent  structures 
on  every  sheep  farm.  First  there  is  the  receiving  yard,  to  which  a 
fenced  lane  is  made  so  that  the  sheep  can  be  easily  driven  into  it. 
From  this  yaixl  a  few  sheep  at  a  time  are  driven  into  the  smaller  yards 
A,  B,  C,  D,  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  sloping  stage.  At  the  foot  of  the 
stage  ai'e  two  decoy  pens  made  of  wii'e  netting,  in  each  of  which  are 
two  sheep.  The  sheep  seeing  these  decoys  run  to  them  and  onto 
the  slojiing  stage,  from  which  they  shj)  into  the  dipping  vat.  This  is 
twenty'  feet  long  for  a  large  flock,  or  smaller  for  a  less  number,  and  is 
kept  filled  up  to  a  certain  jjoint  so  that  the  sheep  is  entii'ely  covered 
as  it  passes  thi-ough  it,  the  head  being  held  up  to  keep  the  liquid 
fi'om  being  swallowed.  At  the  end  of  the  vat  there  is  a  barred  slopiing 
floor,  uj)  which  the  sheep  walk  to  the  draining  yards  before  mentioned, 
from  which  after  a  time  they  are  let  out.  The  dipping  vat  is  supplied 
by  two  boilers  and  water  reservoirs  to  regulate  the  heat  and  the 
strength  of  the  hquid;  one  boiler  is  kept  for  water,  and  the  other  for 
steeping  the  tobacco  and  sulphur.  Some  extensive  sheep  farmers  make 
a  practice  of  dij)pingthe  sheep  twice  a  year,  once  in  the  fall  and  again 
after  shearing,  the  dipping  being  supj^osed  to  improve  the  growth 
and  quality  of  the  wool.  No  doubt  it  has  this  effect  because  of  the 
comfort   enjoyed   by  the   sheep  from   the   removal   of  troublesome 


Lice  and  fleas  are  frequently  a  great  jjest  to  young  cattle  and  even 
horses.  The  origin  of  these  is  no  doubt  in  a  great  measure  due  to 
vermm;  rats  and  mice  always  swarm  with  them;  swallows  often  stock 
a  bam  with  them ;  while  poultry  that  are  neglected  are  rarely  free 
from  them.  Dogs  and  cats  carry  fleas  which  they  gather  from  their 
prey,  and  unless  carefully  freed  by  washing  or  by  the  use  of  insect 
powder,  will  soon  stock  a  house  with  them.  No  fowls  should  be  per- 
mitted about  stables,  for  it  has  been  known  that  horses  have  been  so 
infested  with  vermin  from  them  as  to  slowly  die  from  the  torment 
inflicted  in  this  manner,  which  the  owners  have  never  suspected,  but 
have  attributed  to  other  causes. 

INTERNAL  PAEASITES— BLADDER  WORMS  OF   SHEEP. 

Our  fann  animals  are  exceedingly  pestered  with  internal  parasites, 
and  many  thousands  are  lost  every  year  by  diseases  of  which  the  true 
causes  are  unsuspected.     Sheep,  pigs,  calves  and  lambs  suft'er  chiefly. 


258 


How  THt  Fakm  1'avs. 


being  from  tlieii-  natural  weakness  unable  to  strive  successfully  against 
the  exhaustive  effects  of  these  parasitts, .  which  live  upon  the  vital 
liuids  of  the  animals,  besides  producing  intolerable  and  fatal  iiTitation 
iu  the  organs  in  which  thej'  find  their  abode.  The  most  important  of 
these  injurious  parasites  are  tapewonus,  and  these  are  more  especially 
worthy  of  notic-e  because  they  not  unfrequently  find  a  lodgment  in 
the  human  body  and  produce  distressing  inconvenience  and  tliscase. 
Sheep  sutler  most  from  these  parasites,  one  of  which  finds  its  resting 
Ijlace  in  the  brain,  and  produces  the  very  common  disease  known  as 
"  gid  "  or  "  tumside, "  so  called  because  the  animal  appears  giddy,  or 
turns  around  continually  towards  one  side  in  a  circle,  until  it  diojjs 
and  dies  in  convulsions.     This  pest  is  known  as  the  Brain  Bladder 


SHKnp  BIUIN  ULADDElt  WOIIM. 


"WoiTu,  from  its  appeiu-ance  as  watery  bladders  in  the  brain  of  the 
sheep.  The  wonu  gains  its  entrance  into  the  sheep's  brain  in  the 
foOowing  curious  manner.  The  mature  worm  inhabits  the  intestines 
of  the  dog,  and  its  eggs  are  discharged  in  the  dung  which  is  dropped 
in  the  fields  near  fences,  stones  or  ti'ces  or  on  tufta  of  grass,  as  is  the 
habit  of  the  dog.  The  sheejj  loves  to  nibble  such  tufts  of  grass,  and 
in  swallowing  the  herbage  also  swallows  with  it  the  eggs.  These  are 
very  small,  and  when  in  the  stomach  are  absorbed  into  the  lacteal 
vessels  and  caiTied  into  the  veins,  and  those  which  reach  the  brain 
remain  there,  forming  around  themselves  thin  envelopes  like  bladders, 
which  become  filled  with  watery  fluid  absorbed  from  the  blood.  In 
the  engraving  is  shown  the  brain  of  a  sheep  having  one  of  these 
bladders  in  it.  The  bladder  contains  a  great  many  small  sacs,  one  of 
which  is  also  sho^vn  sepsu-ately,  each  containing  an  embryo  tape  worm. 
"When  these  bladders  are  numerous  in  the  brain,  they  jiroduce  such 
distm-bance  of  that  organ  as  to  cause  the  peculiiu- effects  above  described 
and  the  slow  death  of  the  animal.  The  disease  is  most  prevalent  in 
the  winter,  and  the  past  season  (1884)  has  been  especially  disastrous 


Tape  "W'oRits  of  Sheep  and  Pigs.  259 

to  sheep  owners  from  this  cause,  which  has  seriously  reduced  the  profits 
from  their  flocks.  The  sheep  dj'ing  of  this  disease  ai-e  cast  out  to  be 
devoui-ed  by  dogs,  which  swallow  the  embryo  wonus  and  so  become 
infested.  It  is  said  that  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  dogs  are  eaiTying 
these  worms,  and  if  this  be  a  fact,  along  with  the  other  fact,  that  thousands 
of  sheep  are  yearly  destroyed  by  the  ravages  of  dogs,  it  is  easUy  seen 
how  this  jjest  is  so  abundantly  sjDread  over  our  fields  and  through  our 
flocks,  while  the  effective  remedy  is  obvious. 

Other  sj)ecies  of  tape  worms  inhabit  the  lungs  and  other  organs  of 
sheep,  cattle  and  pigs,  being  found  in  the  lungs,  hver,  spleen,  bowels, 
kidneys,  brain  and  various  other  parts.  Thus  it  is  seen  how  easily, 
through  iusufiicient  cooking  of  the  meat,  these  j)arasites  may  be  carried 
into  the  human  system,  and  how  dangerous  it  is  to  eat  uncooked  flesh 
of  any  kind.  It  is  declared  by  competent  authorities  that  one-sixth 
of  the  moi-tahty  in  the  East  Indies  and  in  Iceland  is  caused  by  these 
tape  worms  taken  into  the  stomach  ia  raw  or  partly  cooked  meat. 
Also  it  must  be  obvious  to  inteUigent  farmers  that  every  possible 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  jjrevent  the  sjuead  of  these  dangerous 
parasites. 


THE   SWINE   BLADDER  WORM   (THE   MEASLE). 

A  tape  worm  which  infests  swine  to  a  dangerous  and  disastrous 
extent  is  here  shown.  It  is  a  small  worm,  and  is  especially-  noticeable 
because  this  passes  between  mankind  and  the  jDig,  and  in  man  pro- 
duces fatal  disorder   of  the  brain  in  many  cases.     The  engi-avings 


show  the  form  of  the  head  of  the  mature  worm,  and  also  the  small 
bladder  in  which  the  young  worm  is  contained,  and  which  is  found 
in  the  flesh  of  the  infested  p)igs.  The  nature  of  this  worm  indicates 
the  proper  means  of  avoiding  it.  As  it  infests  mankind,  it  is 
dangerous  to  use  night  soil  as  a  fertilizer  for  grass  or  any  vegetable 
that  is  eaten  in  a  raw  state,  as  lettuce  or  radishes,  or  to  permit  pigs 
to  have  access  to  any  place  where  they  can  devour'  filth  in  which  the 
eggs  may  exist.  And  to  prevent  its  sj)read  from  the  swine,  it  is 
necessary  to  be  cai-eful  that  pork  in  any  form  is  thoroughly  well 
cooked.     The  well  known  disease  in  pigs  called  "  measles"  is  produced 


260 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


bv  this  parasite,  auil  measly  pork  is  therefore  exceedingly  dangerous 
food. 

THE   FLUKE   OF  SHEEP. 

The  most  disastrous  disease  among  sheep  is  known  as  the  liver  rot. 
Thousands  of  sheep  perish  every  year  from  this  disease  in  this 
country,  and  millions  have  died  in  a  year  in  England,  where  the 
almost  constant  moistui-e  tends  to  encourage  the  pest  gi-eatly. 

The  pest  is  a  species  of  worm  (see  engi-avings)  which  exists  in  the 
sheep,  embedded  in  the  hver,  or  fi-ee  in  the  gtxll  bladder  and  gall 
ducts.  It  is  also  found  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  but  it  is  most  mis- 
chievous in  the  liver,  because  there  it  interferes  with  the  distribution 


^/1^'^:^1^^^^^^^ 


.SH£KF  WITH  UVEB 


of  the  bile,  and  so  causes  bUious  disorder  and  fever,  of  which  the  ani- 
mals die.  The  worm  produces  a  large  quantity  of  eggs,  which  are 
carried  -n-ith  the  bile  into  the  bowels ,  and  -ejected  fi-om  these  in  the 
dimg  onto  the  grass,  or  into  the  manui'e  heap,  and  from  thence  into 
grass  fields.  From  thence  some  of  the  eggs  find  their  way  into  low 
places,  jjouds  or  streams,  and  are  taken  into  the  sheep's  stomach  with 
the  grass  to  which  they  adhere,  or  to  wliich  the  young,  newly  hatched 
flxikes  cling,  or  are  swallowed  in  the  water  drank  from  such  places;  or, 
the  young  flukes  find  their  way  into  the  bodies  of  snails,  and  these 
being  swallowed  with  the  water,  the  sheep  thus  become  infested  and 
diseased.  The  effect  of  the  disease  is  to  cause  the  eyes  to  appear 
yellow  and  dull,  a  watery  swelling  forms  under  the  jaws,  the  fat  and 
skin  become  of  a  yellow  color,  as  that  of  a  person  suffering  from 
jaiuidice.  In  time  the  sheep  jDresents  a  ■WTetched  appe.u'auce,  as  is 
shown  in  the  engi-aving;  the  back  is  bowed  upwiu'ds,  and  the  back- 
bone appears  like  a  shai-p  edge;  tlie  wool  hangs  in  tattei-s,  and  the 
sheep,  worn  out  with  exhaustive  diiuTha?a,  soon  perishes.  The  mere 
avoidance  of  low  pastiu'es  for  the  sheep,  and  the  use  of  well  water  for 
drink,  will  entii-ely  prevent  the  loss  of  sheep  from  this  pest. 


Intestinal  Worms.  261 


LUNG  AND  BRONCHIAL   WORMS. 

Many  an  owner  of  lambs  iinds  them  slowly  pining  away  from  some 
mysterious  disease  for  which  he  cannot  account.  The  skin  becomes  pale, 
as  if  the  blood  had  disai)2:)eared;  the  young  creatiu-es  waste  and  pine 
away  and  gradually  die;  and  this  peculiai-  slow  death  has  given  the 
common  name  of  "  pining "  to  this  disease,  which  is  exceedingly 
prevalent  in  districts  where  sheep  are  kept  numerously. 

The  cause  of  it  is  the  presence  in  the  aii-  jjassages  of  the  lungs  and 
the  ^\•indpipe  of  countless  small  white  worms,  like  fragments  of 
thi'ead,  which,  by  theii'  ii-ritation,  cause  these  au'  passages  to  be  filled 
with  froth  and  mucus,  interfering  with  the  supply  of  air  to  the  luugs 
and  gradually  impoverishing  the  blood.  Not  only  lambs,  but  young 
calves,  jjigs  and  chickens  ai'e  also  infested  with  similar  worms,  which 
jjroduce  the  same  effect,  in  every  case,  however,  resulting  in  death, 
unless  some  remedy  is  found.  Remedies,  however,  must  be  sought 
from  competent  sources,  and  beyond  suggesting  that  sulphiu'  or  tur- 
lieutine,  both  of  which  are  readily  absorbed  into  the  blood  and  spread 
through  the  whole  system,  ai'e  generally  used  with  good  effect  as  a 
remedy,  we  confine  ourselves  here  to  what  we  know  as  regards  pre- 
vention of  the  trouble  from  this  pest.  It  is  well  kno-wu  that  when  lambs 
and  calves  are  j)astured  on  fields  where  old  sheep  or  jjoultry  have 
run,  they  are  siu-e  to  be  affected,  and  that  chickens  that  are  kept 
among  old  fowls,  or  on  gi-ound  that  has  been  fouled  by  the  old 
bii-ds,  invariably  have  this  disease,  which  is  known  in  their  case  as 
"gapes."  The  way  of  prevention,  then,  is  obvious:  never  let  young 
animals  run  for  pastiu-e  where  older  ones  have  been  kept,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  droppings  of  these  animals  contain  the  eggs  of 
the  worms  which  exist  in  their  intestines,  and  which  mature  and  die 
and  are  discharged,  with  the  innumerable  eggs  contained  in  their 
bodies.  These  older  animals,  being  more  robust,  are  not  annoyed 
"with  the  woiTus,  although  in  some  cases  these  may  produce  diseases 
of  which  the  cause  is  not  suspected. 


INTESTINAL  WORMS. 

Fai-m  animals  suffer  exceedingly  from  intestinal  pai-asites,  which 
are  so  numerous  as  to  almost  defy  description.  There  is  not  an 
organ  of  imj)ortance  in  the  body  which  is  not  more  or  less  infested 
■nith  them.  The  liver,  the  kidney,  the  bowels,  the  kidney  fat,  the 
heaii,  ai-e  all  subject  to  attacks  by  these  pests;  while  one  particulai- 
worm  known  as  Trichina  Spiralis  (see  engraving)  is  so  common  among 


2G2 


How  Tin:  Fakm  Pays. 


pipfs,  as  to  have  led  to  disputes  aud  ill  feeliug  between  cm-  own  and 
foreign  Governments,  which  have  refused  oiu-  jiork  because  of  this 
dangerous  pest.  Tlie  los.ses  to  agriculture  on  this  account  alone  lu-e 
no  doubt  enormous,  and  may  be  still  gi-eater,  and  thus  seriously  affect 
the  question  of  "How  the  Fiunn  Pays."  The  engi-avings  here  given 
show  this  worm  as  it  appeal's  when  niatui'e  and  filled  with  eggs,  liut 
greatly  enlai-ged.  In  its  natural  state  it  is  barely  ^•isible  to  the  naked 
eye  and  can  be  seen  ^^■ith  difficulty  as  an  oval  shaped  capsule,  as  large 
as  a  small  pin's  head,  embedded  in  the  muscular  tissue.  In  this  con- 
dition it  is  dormant  and  has  no  fmiher  effect  than  to  cause  stiffness  of 
the  limbs  at  times,  and  it  thus  exists  until  the  flesh  in  which  it  is 
encvstod  is  oaten  and  digested,  when  the  worms  ai'e  set  free  and  begin 


TRICHINA    f^I'IKALIS. 


THE  SAMB  ENCVb' 


theii-  work  of  destiaiction.  It  infests  rats,  mice,  and  several  other 
caiiiou  or  oftal  eating  animals;  but  the  pig,  from  its  omnivorous  habits, 
is  specially  infested  by  it.  Pigs  become  infested  by  devoiuing  rats, 
the  ofl'al  of  the  pork  23acking  estabUshments,  and  tlie  dung  of  other 
swine.  Some  may  die  from  the  effects  of  the  j)ai'asites,  which,  as  they 
2)eneti-atc  the  bowels  aud  jjass  into  the  musculai'  tissue,  cause  fever  and 
intense  jiain  in  the  Hmbs,  with  profuse  diaiThiea.  After  a  short  time, 
if  the  animiil  does  not  die,  the  creatures  fonu  theii-  cysts,  in  which  they 
curl  themselves  up  and  begin  their  curious  aud  lengthened  sleep. 
As  with  other  jiests  of  this  njiture,  prevention  is  the  safest  course,  and 
cleanliness  of  feeding  and  lodging,  with  the  destniction  of  vennin, 
will  be  sutHcieut  to  avoid  it. 

The  j)ig  is  the  prey  of  numerous  other  intestinal  parasites,  one  of 
which  inhabits  the  kidney  and  the  fat  ai'ound  it.  This  is  a  small 
wonn  an  inch  or  more  in  length  and  causes  that  very  common  disease 
in  pigs  which  produces  paralysis  of  the  hind  quarters.  The  numerous 
w(n-ms  which  are  found  in  the  bowels  greatly  affect  the  health  of 
animals,  but  would  be  fiu'  less  trouble  if  more  care  were  taken  to  avoid 
impoverishment  of  the  condition  by  injudicious  feeding,  over  feeding 
being  quite  as  objectionable  in  this  re^i^ect  as  insufficient  food.     As  a 


The  Colokabo  Beetle,  or  Potato  Bug.  263 

rule,  parasites,  outward  and  internal,  trouble  those  animals  whose 
poor  condition  causes  those  unhealthy  secretions  and  products  which 
it  seems  a  purpose  of  nature  that  these  parasites  should  exist  to  remove 
and  destroy;  and  this  apphes  to  aU  other  farm  animals  as  well  as  to 
pigs. 

THE   PESTS   OF  THE   CROPS. 

The  damage  and  loss  occasioned  by  insects  which  prey  upon  the 
farmer "s  crops  are  beyond  calculation.  The  Colorado  Beetle  alone 
must  have  cost  the  fanners  a  hundred  million  dollars  in  the  dozen 
yeai's  or  so  since  it  first  left  its  original  home  and  came  to  stay  with 
us.  The  Chinch  Bug  has  frequently  cost  the  Western  fanners  fifty 
million  doUai's  in  a  single  year  in  damage  to  the  com  and  wheat,  and 
the  Hessian  Fly  has  occasionally  cost  an  equal  sum  in  one  year,  but 
is,  fortunately,  not  so  destructive  as  the  bug.  On  every  hand  the 
farmer  is  harassed  by  an  innumerable  anny,  whose  ravages  he  can- 
not resist,  because  of  its  numbers.  But  while  one  alone  is  powerless 
to  resist,  yet,  by  learning  a  lesson  from  his  enemies  and  combining 
his  forces  and  acting  in  unison,  the  fanner  may  do  a  good  deal  to 
save  his  crops  from  destruction. 


THE   COLORADO  BEETLE,  COMMONLY   CALLED   "POTATO  BUG." 

This  insect  is  just  now  creating  so  much  alarm  in  Eiu'ope  that  the 
governments  ai'e  using  every  eflbrt  to  instruct  the  people,  old  and 
young,  in  regard  to  its  apj)earance  and  habits,  so  that  its  first  acci- 
dental an-ival  may  not  pass  unnoticed,  and  it  may  not  escajje  imme- 
diate destniction.  Generallj'  the  course  of  emigration  of  insect  pests 
has  been  the  other  way,  and  we  have  received  oiu'  worst  insects  from 
Eiu'ope;  the  course  of  conquest,  however,  in  this  case,  seems  to  be 
reversed.  This  beetle  is  not  easily  mistaken.  It  is  sluggish  and  slow 
in  its  movements,  is  roundish  in  fomi,  about  half  an  inch  in  length, 
and  is  marked  very  conspicuously  with  ten  yellow  and  black  lines 
lengthwise  of  its  wing  covers.  The  under  or  true  wings  are  reddish, 
and  are  quite  noticeable  when  the  insect  is  flpng.  The  female  beetle 
is  larger  than  the  male,  and  produces  about  1,200  eggs.  The  insect 
23asses  the  winter  in  a  mature  but  dormant  state,  in  the  ground,  and 
emerges  about  the  middle  of  May  or  1st  of  June,  at  the  season  of 
potato  planting.  As  soon  as  the  first  leaves  of  the  young  plants  ai-e 
above  gi-ound,  the  beetles  are  ready  and  waiting  to  attack  them, 
and,  unless  prevented,  ^viIl  eat  the  young  growth  down  to  the  ground 


•2(i-l  How  THK  Fakm   Pays. 

and  wholly  destroy  it.  It  is  theu  that  the  lieetle  ciiu  be  attacked  most 
effectively.  A  lijrht  sprinkling  of  a  niixtm-e  of  fine  flour,  or  gi-oimd 
g^-psum,  or  fine,  dry  lime,  w-itli  one-thousandth  piu-t  by  measure  of 
Palis  Green  upon  the  young  leaves,  will  desti-oy  every  beetle.  Every 
female  beetle — and  these  ai-e  fai-more  numerous  than  the  males — that  is 
desti-oyed,  of  coui-se  prevents  the  hu-ing  of  more  than  1,000  eggs,  and 
as  these  eggs  will  hatch  and  produce  a  second  lirood,  and  this  a  third, 
it  follows  that  one  female  less  in  the  spiing  is  equiviilent  to  many 
miUious  less  in  the  late  summer,  and,  of  coui-se,  the  next  year-.  This 
fact  illusti-ates  the  absolute  necessity  that  fiuTiiers  should  neglect  no 
opportunity  of  destroying  these  jiests  at  any  time  and  opportimity, 
either  by  hand  picking  the  beetles  early  in  Ihe  season,  when  they  may 
be  few,  and  usuig  the  Piu-is  Green  mixture  (a  mixture  in  water  is 
equall}'  effective  and  safer  in  use)  upon  every  jiossible  occasion.  Tliis 
insect  attacks  potatoes,  egg  j)hints  and  tomatoes,  all  species  of  the 
Solanum  family,  to  which  its  natui-al  food  jjlant,  the  Hoi-se  Nettle, 
belongs. 

THE  CHINCH  BUG. 

This  insect  is  not  more  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  has 
the  usual  disagi'eeable  odor  of  its  family,  and,  like  other  bugs,  lives  by 
suction.  It  attacks  wheat,  corn,  oats  and  other  small  gi-aius,  as  well 
as  timothy  grass,  and  in  some  cases  destroys  meadows  and  leaves  the 
gi'oundbai-e.  It  is  black,  with  white  fore  'NN'ings,  and  when  in  a  mass 
upon  a  plant  appears  like  gi'ay  dust.  It  usually  ajjpears  on  the  wheat 
in  June,  and  later  on  the  com;  at  times  it  also  attacks,  tlu'ough  the 
summer,  all  kinds  of  gai'den  vegetables.  It  exists  from  Maine  to  beyond 
the  Missoui-i  River,  but  is  most  destructive  in  the  central  Mississippi 
Talley.  Recently  it  has  done  much  damage  in  the  meadows  of  northern 
New  York.  It  is  subject  to  a  parasitic  disease,  wliich  prevails  mostly 
in  cold,  wet  seasons,  when  the  insects  are  weakened,  and  at  such  times 
almost  wholly  disappeai's,  but  it  increases  very  rapidly,  and  soon  again 
becomes  desti-uctive,  when  the  season  is  favorable  to  it.  There  is  but 
one  remedy,  and  this  is  to  biu-n  off  all  the  stubble  from  the  fields  in 
the  fidl,  or  to  j^low  it  inider  deeply,  and  leave  no  harboring  places 
in  which  the  pest  may  sim'ive  the  winter. 

THE   HE.SSI.\N   FLY. 

This  insect  has  at  times  wholly  prevented  the  culture  of  wheat,  in 
locahties  where  this  grain  is  a  leading  crop.  It  is  a  small  fly  which 
appears  late  in  August  and  early  in  September,  and  lays  its  eggs  in 


Pests  of  the  Cabbage  and  Tdrsip.  265 

the  eai'ly  sown,  young  wheat,  low  down  in  the  sheath,  among  the  leaves- 
The  eggs  soon  hatch  and  produce  small  maggots,  which  suck  the  sap 
from  the  tender  j)lants,  and  soon  cause  them  to  fade  and  turn  yellow. 
In  favorable  seasons  the  stooling  of  the  wheat  helj^s  to  overcome  the 
damage  and  save  the  crop,  but  too  often  the  plants  are  so  weakened 
that  they  cannot  resist  the  rigors  of  the  winter,  and  in  the  sj)ring 
nothing  appears  but  the  sere  and  yellow  remains  of  what  was  a 
promising  crop.  If  the  crop  suiwives  and  recovers  in  the  spring,  a 
second  brood  appears  in  the  early  summer,  and  attacks  the  stems  at 
the  iijiper  leaves,  and  causes  them  to  break  down  and  wither,  and  so 
ruins  the  crop.  Burning  the  stubble  and  clean  cultiu'e  of  the  fields, 
seem  to  be  the  only  means  of  prevention,  while  the  late  sowing  of  the 
grain,  so  as  to  put  off  the  ajipearance  of  the  braird  until  after  the 
flies  have  deposited  their  eggs  elsewhere,  and  the  Uberal  manuring 
and  fertilizing  of  the  soil  to  strengthen  the  plants,  are  generally 
effective  in  avoiding  the  pest. 


THE   CABBAGE   BUTTERFLY. 

This  pest  is  exceedingly  destructive  to  the  cabbage  crop,  and  some- 
times by  its  numbers  and  voracitj'  entireh'  ruins  it.  The  damage  is 
done  in  its  lai-va  stage,  when  the  insect  is  a  hght  green,  soft  cater- 
jjiUar.  The  parent  is  a  white  winged  butterfly  having  one  or  two 
small  black  dots  upon  each  wing,  and  has  onlj^  been  known  upon 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic  for  a  few  years,  since  when  it  has  spread  all 
over  the  Eastern  and  central  portions  of  the  country.  The  best  pre- 
ventive is  to  captui-e  the  butterflies  with  hand  nets,  which  is  easily 
done  as  they  hover  over  the  cabbages  seeking  jjlaces  to  deposit  their 
eggs,  or  as  they  ahght  upon  other  plants  to  sip  moisture.  Poison 
canaot  be  used  for  obvious  reasons,  but  a  strong  decoction  of  red 
peppers,  or  a  solution  of  saltpetre  sjirinkled  over  the  plants,  will  kill 
the  catei-pillars.  WTiere  the  plantation  is  not  large,  hand  picking  can 
be  used,  and  to  reach  the  insects  a  long,  slender  pair  of  scissors  will 
do  the  work  much  more  rapidly  than  the  fingers. 

THE  TUR^^P  BEETLE    (JUMPING  JACK). 

This  insignificant  little  pest  sometimes  gives  gi'eat  annoyance  to 
the  root  gi-ower,  wholly  destroying  the  crop,  when  in  its  seed  leaves. 
It  is  a  veiy  small  steel  blue  or  black  beetle,  which  sjnings  veiy  actively 
when  it  is  distui-bed.  An  effective  remedy  against  it  is  to  sprinkle 
the  rows  of  young  plants  as  soon  as  they  break  through  the  gi'oimd 


266  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

with  fine  dry  air-slaked  lime,  fine  soot  or  wood  ashes,  or  to  dust  the 
rows  with  tlie  stronjj  smeUiuf,'  supei-i)hosphate  of  lime  that  is  luade 
with  "  sludge  acid  "  or  the  refuse  acid  from  peti'oleum  refineries. 


THE  PEA  AND  BEAN  WEEVIL.S. 

The  former  of  these  beetles  has  been  long  with  us;  the  latter  is  a 
new  arrival,  but  is  fast  becoming  veiy  destnictive,  especially  to  Lima 
beans.  Some  of  these  beans  have  as  many  as  eight  beetles  in  them, 
while  tlu'ee  or  four  is  a  common  uvmiber.  The  pea  weevil  is  too  well 
known  to  need  any  remai-k.  The  only  safeguai-d  is  to  avoid  sowing 
the  insects  -tt-ith  the  seed.  Only  piu-e,  free  seed  should  be  sown.  If 
this  could  be  done  by  general  consent  and  deteimination  these  jiests 
would  soon  disappeai'. 

THE   CORN   SILK   WORM. 

i\Iai'ket  fiuiners  who  make  a  special  crojj  of  sweet  com  have  been 
iiuich  pestered  of  late  years  with  a  caterpUlai',  or  rather  two  of  them, 
which  begin  to  devour  the  silk  of  the  eai-s,  and,  foUo\^'ing  it  into  the 
husk,  consume  the  soft  grain  just  as  it  becomes  ready  for  uiai'ket,  in 
its-  gi-een  state.  One  or  two  inches  of  the  tips  of  the  ears  is  thus 
damaged,  so  as  to  render  the  eai-s  tinsalable.  The  remedy  is  not 
appai-ent.  All  that  we  can  do  here  is  to  csill  attention  to  it,  so  that 
our  readers  may  devise  some  methods  to  prevent  the  diimage.  Dust- 
ing the  sUk  with  fine  air-slaked  lime  has  been  found  to  kee]i  off  the 
insects,  and  jiroljably  desti'oys  the  eggs  as  soon  as  laid,  or  drives  away 
the  i)areut  moths. 

THE   TOBACCO   AND   TOMATO   WORM. 

Tliis  worm  is  a  troublesome  pest  to  the  tobacco  gi-ower,  and  also 
preys  upon  tomato  plants.  It  is  a  long,  stout,  green  wonu,  having 
yellow  angulai-  bands  on  each  side.  Another  species  has  white  bauds 
edged  with  blue.  The  parents  .  ai-e  large  moths  of  tlie  vsuieties 
known  as  sphinx  or  hawk  moths,  and  have  long  tongues,  usujUly 
cm-led  up  in  the  manner  of  a  watch  spring,  ^\•ith  which  they  penetrate 
to  the  bottom  of  the  calyx  of  the  flowers,  upon  whose  nectar  they  feed. 
These  moths  feed  upon  the  common  "Jimson"  weed  {Datura  stra- 
monium), and  tobacco  growers  have  rid  their  fields  of  the  ^lests  by 
putting  a  few  drojjs  of  solution  of  cobalt  in  the  blossoms  of  this  weed, 
grow-u  for  the  purpose  among  the  crop.     As  it  is  not  always  easy  to 


The  Army  "Worji. 


267 


get  the  seed  of  this  plant,  and  as  there  has  been  some  inquiry  for  it, 
we  might  suggest  that  any  vai'iety  of  the  cultivated  species  of  Datura, 
especially  those  having  white  flowers,  might  be  sown  among  the  crop 
and  used  as  a  traj)  for  these  moths.  In  the  lai-ge  tobacco  fields  of 
California  flocks  of  turkeys  ai-e  driven  into  the  fields  to  devour-  these 
worms,  for  which  these  bii-ds  have  a  specially  vigorous  appetite. 


THE  ARMY  WORJI. 

At  times,  the  Ai'my  Worm  commits  enormous  ravages  upon  wheat 
and  grass.  It  appears  suddenly  in  ovei-whelming  numbers,  and 
marching  sti-aight  on,  devours  all  before  it,  and  leaves  a  ban-en  waste 
behind  it.  Combined  effoi-ts  alone,  of  the  fai-mers,  can  avail  to  stop 
it,  and  these  must  be  swift  and  thorough.    Land  rollers;  loaded  bi-ush 


MOTH  OF  AHMY  WOEM. 


haiTows;  furrows  plowed  across  the  track  of  the  worms  ahead  of  them, 
and  kept  clear  of  the  worms  by  cU'awing  a  log  up  and  down  so  as  to 
ci-ush  them  as  they  gather  in  the  ditch — all  these  have  been  used  with 
success,  when  every  farmer  in  the  threatened  locahty  has  helj^ed  in 
the  work.  One  man  alone  is  powerless  to  stop  the  march  of  the  count- 
less horde.  This  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  small  brown  moth,  but  whence  it 
comes  in  such  numbers,  or  where  it  goes  after  having  dejjosited  its  eggs 
to  produce  the  myriads  of  worms  which  ai-e  its  progeny,  no  obsener  has 
yet  been  able  to  discover.  The  general  color  of  the  full  grown  worm 
is  dingy  black,  with  a  broad  dusky  stripe  on  the  back,  then  a  narrow 
black  line;  then  a  naiTow  white  line;  then  a  yellowish  stripe; 
than  a  naiTow  indistinct  white  line;  then  a  dusky  stripe;  then 
a  narrow  white  line;  then  a  yeUowish  strijje;  then  an  indistinct  white 


268 


How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 


Hue.  The  belly  is  gi-eenisli.  The  eugraviug  gives  a  veiT  good  repre- 
sentation of  the  wonii,  which,  however,  makes  itself  known  bv  its 
numbers  and  its  voracity  in  such  an  unmistakable  manner,  when 
it  overwhelms  the  wheat  and  grass  fields  -n-ith  its  unwelcome  and 
desti-uctive  presence,  that  the  farmer  needs  no  pictorial  help  to 
recognize  his  enemy.  The  chrysalis  (see  engraving)  is  a  shiny  brown 
color,  of  the  size  here  given,  and  may  be  recognized  by  ha^-ing  two  stiff 
thorns,  with  two  fine  cui-led  hooks  upon  each  of  them ;  and  when  these 
are  found  in  the  soil,  the  appearance  of  the  worms  may  be  looked  for. 


THE   FALL  AKMY  WORM. 

Another  Ai-my  "Worm,  which  resembles  the  true  Ai'my  Woitq  so 
much  as  to  be  taken  for  it  even  by  scientific  men  at  times,  appears  in 
the  fall,  and,  when  numerous,  is  a  true  pest.     It  does  not  confine 


AEMY  WUIOl. 


MOTH  UF  FAIX  AB.MT  WORM. 


itself,  as  the  Army  Worm  does,  to  grass  and  grain,  but  devours  in 
addition  purslane,  turnips,  garden  vegetables  and  even  evergreen 
trees.  It  differs,  however,  in  having  hairs  along  the  back  in  small 
tufts,  while  the  time  Anuy  "Worm  is  smooth,  without  any  appearance 
of  haii's.  Its  destructive  chai-acter,  however,  makes  it  worthy  of 
notice  among  the  jiests  of  the  fanu. 


THE   CrCtJMBER  AND  SQUASH   BEETLE. 

The  small  striped  beetle,  which  is  found  harboring  aViout  cucumber 
and  melon  vines,  is  an  insidious  and  injmious  foe  to  the  gi'ower  of 
these  crops.  Few  suspect  how  much  mischief  this  little  lui-king  pest 
accomplishes.  But  this  beetle  is  the  cause  of  the  mysterious  wilting 
of  the  vines,  "  going  down. "  the  gi'owei-s  call  it,  wliich  occurs  wthout 
warning,  and  for  which  no  remedy  has  previously  been  foimd.  But 
if  search  is  made  about  the  roots  of  the  plants  a  small,  slender  white 
worm,  or  more  of  them,  will  be  found  gnawing  into  them;  and  as 
they  destroy  one  root,  fii-st  one  jjlant  "goes  down,"  the  leaves  droop 


Squash  BoREr. — Onion  Maggot.  269 

and  then  wilt  and  finallj'  die,  and  then  another  and  another  goes 
down,  until  the  whole  hill  is  destroyed.  This  small  worm  is  the 
lan-a  of  the  striped  beetle.  The  j)ast  season  we  have  found  a  remedy 
which  is  effective,  both  to  entirelj^  jsrevent  the  damage,  or  to  arrest 
its  course  when  it  is  begun.  It  is  to  make  a  mixture  of  one  gill  of 
kerosene  oil  with  a  solution  of  one  pound  of  common  jellow  soap  in 
one  gallon  of  hot  water;  the  whole  is  shaken  into  an  emulsion,  and 
a  small  quantity  of  it  is  i:)ouied  about  the  roots  in  each  hill. 

THE   SQUASH  BORER. 

When  the  leaves  of  a  squash  plant  are  seen  to  wilt,  the  cause  may 
be  found  by  searching  along  the  vines,  when  a  scar  may  be  perceived 
near  a  joint  If  the  stem  is  slit  with  a  small  knife  above  the  scar,  a 
white  grab,  or  two  or  three,  may  be  discovered  in  the  hollow  stem. 
These  ai'e  the  Squash  Borers,  and  are  the  laxvse  of  a  j'ellowish  moth, 
which  is  akin  to  the  dahlia  stalk  borer.  It  does  not  injure  the  vine 
to  thus  slit  it  and  remove  the  grubs,  and  if  the  joints  of  the  vine  are 
covered  with  soil,  and  the  kerosene  emulsion  sprayed  over  the  stems, 
these  wiU  sei-ve  as  a  preventive  of  the  injury.  The  vines  wiU  root  at 
the  joints,  and  the  main  stem  may  be  then  wholly  destroyed  without 
stopping  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

THE   ONION  MAGGOT. 

This  pest,  which  greatly  annoys  onion  gi-owers,  is  the  larva  of  a 
small  fly  related  to  the  radish  liy.  The  lai'va  is  a  small  white  grub, 
which  eats  its  way  into  the  bulb  and  destroys  it.  The  fly  appears 
late  in  June,  and  to  prevent  damage  by  it  the  onion  grower  may 
dust  the  rows  with  fine  lime  or  soot,  or  the  strong  smeUing  sujier- 
phosphate  of  lime  previously  mentioned.  This  fly  is  closely  related 
to  the  parent  of  the  Cabbage  Root  Maggot,  wliich  causes  club-root  in 
this  plant.  Similar  precautious  may  be  also  taken  for  this  pest. 
Lai-ge  applications  of  lime  or  gj-jasum  to  the  soil  have  been  found 
useful  to  repel  the  attacks  of  all  the  different  sijecies  of  these  root 
flies.  Continuous  growing  of  onions,  cabbage  or  turnips  on  the  same 
ground  encourages  the  attacks  of  these  pests. 

CUT  WORMS. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  other  pest  that  is  so  irritating  to  the  fai-mer  as 
the  worm  which  comes  in  the  night  and  cuts  down  his  young  corn, 
cabbage  and  peas,  and  cuts  off  the  fruit  stalks  of  the  strawberries 


270  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

Avhen  they  ai-e  loaded  •with  the  uewly  set  fruit.  No  remedy  seems  to 
be  completely  eftective  against  tbem.  We  have  found  the  best  remedy 
to  dig  the  worms  out  of  the  soft  soil  aroirud  the  plants,  where  they 
harbor  in  the  day-time.  All  surface  applications  ai-e  unavailing. 
For  large  fields  it  seems  to  be  the  best  way  to  jilaut  thickly,  so  that 
enough  maj-  be  left  after  the  cut  wonn  has  been  satisfied.  There  is 
a  common  beUef  that  when  the  hot  weather  of  July  comes,  the  cut 
worms  burst  with  the  heat  and  die.  This  should  be  seen  at  first 
sight  to  be  a  mistake,  for  Natui'e  never  works  in  such  a  useless 
manner  as  that.  Tliese  worms  are  the  larvse  of  various  species  of 
moths,  and  about  July  they  change  into  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  stage, 
and  become  dormant  for  a  time  until  they  emerge  as  full  gro'mi  moths. 


WHITE  GRUBS. 

These  insects,  which  are  the  lai-^'Ee  of  the  May  Beetle  or  June  Bug, 
a  large  brown  insect,  which  comes  into  houses  in  the  evenings  of 
eai-ly  summer,  do  great  mischief  to  crops.  They  devour  the  roots  of 
gi'ass  during  mild  weather  in  the  winter,  and  in  fall  and  sjjring;  they 
also  eat  the  roots  of  strawberries,  corn,  cabbage  and  other  vegetables, 
when  they  ai-e  half  grown,  and  stop  the  gi-owth.  They  are  particularly 
destructive  to  potatoes  at  times,  and  scoop  out  the  flesh,  making 
lai-ge  cavities  in  the  tubers,  or  even  leaving  mere  useless  shells.  The 
beetles  devour-  the  leaves  of  the  gi-ape  vine  and  the  Yu-ginia  Creeper. 
Another  beetle,  similar  in  shape  and  size,  but  having  black  spots  on 
the  wing  covers,  is  equally  destructive  iu  its  larva  and  matui-e  stage, 
as  the  May  beetle,  and  in  the  same  ways.  Late  fall  plowing  exposes 
these  ginibs  to  theii-  enemies — crows  and  skunks  chiefly — which 
devour  them  iu  lai'ge  quantities.  Clean  culture  and  thorough  culti- 
vation of  the  soil  tend  very  much  to  keep  these  pests  in  subjection. 

WIRE  WORMS. 

A  hard,  wiry,  brown  worm,  which  is  not  an  insect,  but  belongs  to 
the  family  of  myiiapods,  or  "  thousand  legs, "  and  commonly  called 
wire  worm,  i^a  great  pest,  especially  to  the  potato  gi'ower.  Although 
there  may  be  some  doubt  still  remaining,  yet  there  is  abundant  reason 
for  believing  that  the  scabby  appeai'auce  of  potatoes  which  makes 
them  unsidable  is  due  to  the  attacks  of  this  worm,  which  gnaws  the 
skin  and  causes  the  rough  scab.s.  This  worm  is  exceedingly  injurious 
to  wheat  and  grass,  and  also  to  strawbenies.  eating  the  roots  and  the 
fniits  which  rest  upon  the  groimd.     So  fai-  as  potatoes  ai-e  concerned. 


Tree  Borers.  271 

it  appears  that  the  use  of  the  chemical  fertilizers  avoids  the  damage, 
while  of  all  the  common  manui-es,  cow  mamire  encourages  the  jiest 
the  most  "While  there  is  such  an  easy  remedy  for  the  jjotato  crop, 
which  is  the  most  injiu-ed  bj'  it,  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  suggest  any 
other. 


A  great  variety  of  insects — flies,  moths  and  beetles  chiefly — in  their 
lai-va  condition,  subsist  upon  the  wood,  bark  or  pith  of  trees,  shrubs 
ajid  herbaceous  plants.  The  apple,  quince,  peach,  plum,  cherry,  cur- 
rant, rasjjberry,  blackberry,  squash  and  dahlia  are  the  most  infested 
with  these  pests.  The  remedies  for  the  tree  borers  are  to  di-ess  the 
lower  part  of  the  stem  with  some  repellent  ^preparation,  as  a  mixture 
of  cow  dung,  claj'  and  strong  smelling  supei^phosphate  of  hme,  made 
into  a  thin  paste  and  plastered  on  the  bark  near  the  ground,  beginning 
in  June  and  continuing  until  late  in  the  summer.  Either  the  parent 
insects  avoid  the  trees  so  jjrotected,  or  the  young  larvae  cannot  or 
will  not  j)enetrate  the  coating,  and  so  perish.  Another  remedy  is 
to  dig  out  the  grubs  that  have  made  an  entrance  with  knife  and  small 
chisel,  or  to  follow  them  up  with  a  flexible  wii'e  in  their  burrows  and 
kiU  them.  The  smaller  shrubs  are  saved  by  pruning  oS  the  branches 
into  which  the  borers  have  penetrated,  while  soft  stemmed  jalants 
may  be  sjsht,  as  described  under  the  head  of  Squash  Borers,  and  the 
grubs  taken  out  and  destroyed. 

LEAF  SLUGS. 

Pears,  plums  and  quinces  are  much  troubled  by  a  small,  dark,  soft 
bodied  slug,  which  devoius  the  soft  substance  of  the  leaves  and 
reduces  them  to  a  skeleton.  This  checks  the  growth  of  the  tree  by 
destroying  its  breathing  organs.  There  is  a  very  simple  remedy,  viz., 
to  dust  the  leaves  with  fine,  dry,  air-slaked  hme,  which  at  once 
destroys,  by  its  strong  alkaline  and  acrid  jjroperty,  these  moist,  soft 
creatures. 

THE   APPLE   WORM. 

The  gi-eatest  pest  of  the  apple  tree  is  the  Codling  Moth  or  Apple 
Worm.  This  is  a  grayish  moth,  which  lays  its  eggs  upon  the  blossom 
end  of  the  fruit  when  it  is  set,  and  later,  up  to  the  time  when  it  is 
half  gTown.  The  larva  eats  its  waj'  into  the  heart  of  the  ajjple,  around 
and  into  the  core,  when  the  fruit  falls,  and  the  insect  leaves  it,  and 


'272  How  THE  Fak.m  Pays. 

goes  into  the  ground  to  mature.  It  is  the  .second  brood  which  attacks 
the  half  ripened  fruit  and  remains  in  it  during  the  winter.  There  are 
several  remedies:  one  is  to  gather  tlie  fjdlen  fi-uit  and  burn  it,  or  feed 
it  tj  pigs;  or  to  turn  pigs  or  sheep  into  the  orchard  to  consume  the 
fiiUen  fi'uit  before  the  gi'ubs  leave  it;  and  another  is  to  spray  the  trees 
when  the  blossoms  have  f;Ulen,  and  again  as  the  fruit  increases  in  size, 
with  a  mixture  of  one  teaspoonful  of  Paris  Green  in  three  gallons  of 
water,  adtling  a  little  molasses  to  keep  the  mineral  in  suspension,  and 
to  make  it  adhere.  This  application  also  destroys  the  Canker  Worms, 
Tent  Caterpillai"s  and  other  pests  which  infest  this  tree. 

THE   PLUM   WEEVILS. 

The  curculio  or  plum  weevil  is  so  prevalent,  sly  and  yet  active,  as 
to  whoUy  prevent  the  profitable  culture  of  plums  in  extensive  distiiets. 
It  is  a  small  beetle,  akin  to  the  pea  and  bean  weevil,  and  deposits  its  eggs 
in  the  young  fruit,  making  a  crescent  shaped  mark,  which  is  chai-acter- 
istic  of  it.  Of  coiu-se  the  fruit  drops  from  the  tree,  when  the  insect 
escapes  and  matures  in  the  ground  to  repeat  its  depredations.  An 
effective  method  of  destroj-ing  is  to  jai'  the  tree  twice  a  day,  when 
the  beetles  fall  to  the  gi'ound  and  lie  quite  still  for  a  time.  By 
spreading  a  sheet  under  the  tree  the  insects  may  be  caught  and 
destroyed.  Another  pest  of  the  same  character  is  the  plum  gouger, 
which  remains  in  the  fi-uit,  eating  its  way  to  the  heai-t,  and  pene- 
trating the  soft  stone,  where  it  devoui-s  the  kernel.  The  fruit  shrivels 
on  the  tree  and  finally  drops.  From  the  habits  of  these  insects,  any 
outward  application  to  the  tree  is  of  course  useless. 

PLANT  UCE. 

The  family  of  insects  known  by  the  name  of  Aphis,  or  Plant  Lice, 
is  exceedingly  numerous  and  vai-ied.  These  pests  attack  every  2>art 
of  the  plants — roots,  stems,  bark  and  leaves.  Their  power  of  increase 
is  amazing,  as  the  females  ai-e  able  to  produce  several  generations, 
which  reproduce  themselves  wthout  any  sexual  union,  so  that  a  plant 
or  tree  once  attacked  by  them  is  very  soon  completely  overrun 
Grape  vine  roots  are  attacked  by  one  species,  which  render  the 
cultm-e  of  foreign  vai'ieties  in  the  open  air  impossible.  The  orange, 
apple,  peai-,  plum  and  chen-y  ai-e  infested,  both  upon  the  bark  and 
the  leaves,  with  mjTiads  of  vju-ious  species,  while  some  of  the  willows 
are  so  completely  covered  with  them  as  to  become  a  source  of  con- 
tagion to  all  sorts  of  trees  in  their  neighborhood.  The  remedies  are, 
for  the  bark  lice,  to  wash  the  bark  with  a  strong  solution  of  concen- 
trated potash,  or  with  Ume  wash,  or  to  scrape  oflf  the  outer  bark 


Vegetable  Pests.  273 

from  old  trees  and  burn  it;  and  for  the  leaf  lice,  to  syringe  the  trees 
from  underneath,  so  as  to  reach  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  where 
these  jjests  gather,  with  a  solution  of  whale  oU  soap  with  one  part  in 
a  hundred  of  kerosene  oil  added.  Melons,  cucumbers  and  cab- 
bage are  especiallj*  subject  to  these  pests.  For  cabbage  lice,  a  strong 
decoction  of  red  peppers  or  sprinkling  with  di-y,  air-slaked  lime  has 
been  found  useful.  Tobacco  dust  or  snuft'  dusted  on  when  the  dew 
is  on  the  leaves  is  a  certain  remedy. 

THE  ROSE  CHAFER  OR  BEETLE. 

An  ashy  brown  colored  beetle,  commonly  known  as  the  Rose  Bug, 
but  wrongly  so,  for  it  is  a  beetle  (all  bugs  axe  sucking  insects),  is 
exceedingly  destmctive  to  grape  vines,  ujjon  which  it  devours  the 
blossoms,  and  to  cheiTies,  the  young  fruit  and  leaves  of  which  it  con- 
sumes. It  also  eats  into  the  hearts  of  the  buds  and  blooms  of  roses; 
besides  this  it  infests  many  other  plants  and  vegetables,  but  not  so 
injuriously.  It  is  easily  captiu-ed  from  ^'ines,  by  holding  under  the 
insects  a  common  emp)ty  fruit  can  attached  to  a  handle  for  conven- 
ience, and  touching  them  with  a  short  rod,  when  they  immediately 
fall  iuto  the  vessel.  A  small  quantity  of  water  covered  with  a  film  of 
kerosene  od  kills  them  at  once.  As  they  attack  the  vine  first,  the 
main  army  of  them  may  be  routed  by  an  early  raid  upon  them.  A 
sprinkling  of  Paris  Green  in  water  iipon  the  leaves  of  cheiTy  trees, 
when  the  fi-uit  is  setting,  wlU  destroy  a  good  manj-  of  them,  and  as 
the  dressing  remains  for  some  time,  it  is  quite  effective. 

VEGETABLE   PESTS. 

These  include  parasitic  plants  chiefly  of  a  fungoid  chai'acter,  as 
bhghts,  mildews,  rust  and  smuts.  As  our  knowledge  of  this  class  of 
pests  becomes  more  accurate,  it  is  learned  that  they  generally  attack 
trees  and  plants  that  are  either  constitutionally  weak,  or  are  imper- 
fectly nourished,  or  are  weakened  by  some  accidental  injury,  through 
exposure  to  excessive  cold,  or  too  much  heat,  or  by  extreme  moisture 
or  dryness.  This  is  seen  sufficiently  clearly  in  the  cases  of  many 
jilants  for  which  oui-  climate  is  too  hot  or  diy,  as  the  gooseberry, 
the  English  bean,  peas  late  planted,  lettuce,  and  others,  which  are 
subject  to  mildews  to  a  degree  that  makes  their  culture  extremely 
difficult;  as  well  as  the  rusts,  which  attack  oats  and  wheat  when 
excessively  hot  sunshine  follows  a  moist,  cool  night,  with  fog  in  the 
morning.  Generally,  we  beheve  that  the  most  effective  preventive  of 
these  diseases  (for  they  are  reaUy  diseases)  is  to  seciu'e  robust  health 
to  the  trees  and  plants  as  far  as  possible,  and  then  to  use  such  remedies 
as  have  been  found  most  useful  in  checking  their  spread  by  contagion. 


2,74  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

]^Iildew  consists  of  a  white  fibrous  growth,  the  fibres  separately 
being  too  fine  to  be  visible  to  the  eye,  and  this  gi-o^^-th  generally 
api)eai-s  on  the  leaves,  but  sometimes  on  the  fmit  as  well.  It  cannot 
be  doubted  that  this  outward  ajJiseiu-ance  is  merely  the  symptom  of 
an  internal  disesise,  originating  from  some  cause  of  the  natui'e  above 
mentioneiL  Rust  consists  of  small  orange-yellow  or  reddish  oval 
bodies,  so  thickly  intersi)ersed  among  the  white  fibres  of  mildew  as 
to  give  the  leaf  the  appeai'ance  of  being  covered  with  red  dust. 
Other  forms  of  rust  consist  of  cup  shaped  bodies,  made  up  of  these 
very  small  reddish  ovals.  Smut  consists  of  a  mass  of  small,  lirownish. 
round  or  vaiiegated  shaped  spores,  some  being  beautifully  reticulated 
and  marked  when  seen  under  the  microscope.  It  usually  occupies 
the  place  of  the  seed  in  oats  and  wheat,  and  also  in  corn;  but  in  cona 
it  also  apjieai-s  in  masses,  breaking  thi-ough  the  stems,  leaves  and 
flowers  or  tassel,  thus  showing  that  the  whole  plant  is  impregnated 
with  the  disease.  No  doubt  in  most  cases  rust  and  smut  are  sown 
with  the  seed,  either  adhering  to  it  or  infecting  it  iutemaUj-.  The 
so-caUed  potato  rot  is  one  of  these  fungoid,  parasitic  diseases,  closely 
aUied  to  the  smut  of  gi-ain. 

But  a  good  deal  has  yet  to  be  learned  in  regard  to  the  natui'e  of 
these  parasitic  diseases,  and  until  our  knowledge  is  more  complete  it 
interests  us  more  to  consider  what  can  he  done  to  avoid  them.  This 
is  generally  to  see  that  the  trees  and  plants  chiefiy  affected  by  them 
are  maintained  in  vigorous  health  by  the  best  cultivation,  and  by 
fertilizing  with  lime  and  potash,  which  ai'e  principally  needed  by 
them.  And  as  far  as  the  common  farm  crops  are  concerned,  to  avoid 
too  fi'equent  repetition  of  them  upon  the  same  fields,  practicing  as  ^ride 
a  rotation  as  may  be  j)ossible,  to  avoid  exhausting  the  soil  of  the 
most  needed  elements  of  then  gro^Ni.h.  Also  by  preventing  the 
infection  of  healthy  plants  by  destroying  the  contagion;  cutting  off 
and  burning  blighted  limbs;  rooting  out  rusted  plants  and  destro_\-ing 
them  in  some  eft'ective  manner,  but  by  no  means  permitting  them  to 
get  into  the  manure;  by  cai'efully  destroying  aU  smutted  fodder,  all 
diseased  potato  tops;  and  every  ])article  of  smut  in  the  seed  sown,  by 
using  the  pickle  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  the  Culture  of  Wheat. 
No  doubt,  too,  the  regular  use  of  lime  in  the  i-otation  of  manm-ing 
may  have  a  good  effect  in  adding  to  the  fertility  of  the  soD  and  in 
giving  greater  vigor  to  the  vegetation.  Finally,  knowing  how 
infinitely  small  and  light  ai'e  the  spores  or  seeds  of  these  mildews, 
rusts  and  smuts,  we  should  not  be  suii>rised  to  find  them  abundantly 
distributed  in  the  an,  in  water  and  in  the  soil,  so  that  we  cannot 
wonder  that  any  weak  jilaut  may  become  infected  ^^•ith  them  just  at 
the  time  when  it  offers  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  their  growth. 


Faem  MAcmNERY.  275 


CHAPTER  X. 


FARM  MACHINERY. 

This  work  would  be  very  incomplete  if  no  notice  were  taken  of 
farm  machinery,  for  this  is  the  age  of  machinery,  in  which  head  work 
has,  in  a  great  measure,  displaced  hand  work,  to  the  verj'  great  j)rofit 
of  the  farmer.  No  farmer  can  expect  to  make  the  farm  f)ay  by  hand 
work,  as  it  was  done  a  number  of  years  ago,  when  the  scj-the,  the 
■sickle,  the  gi'ain  cradle,  the  hand  rake,  the  flail  and  the  hay  fork  were 
in  use.  He  is  forced  now  to  use  the  mower,  and  the  reajjer  which 
now  binds  tlie  sheaves  and  leaves  them  ready  for  the  shock;  the 
liorse  rake,  the  threshing  machine  and  the  hay  and  grain  elevators; 
and  there  are  now  thousands  of  farms  upon  which  steam  engines 
do  the  work  of  horses,  or  of  the  stiU  earUer  hand  work.  The  farmer 
now  must  be  a  mechanic,  and  make  a  study  of  macliines,  as  he  has 
done  of  stock  and  feed  and  fertUizers. 

The  fii'st  implement  the  farmer  thinks  of  is  the  plow;  and  when  he 
remembers  the  old-fashioned  plows,  and  compares  them  with  the 
innumerable  improved  kinds  now  in  use,  he  gets  a  fair  idea  of  the 
advance  that  has  been  made  in  agricultui-al  practice  by  the  aid  of  the 
mechanic.  No  doubt  this  improvement  will  still  go  on  until  the 
j)resent  difficulties  in  the  way  are  removed,  and  the  fields  wiU  be 
plowed  by  steam  power,  just  as  the  grain  is  canned  to  market, 
"thousands  of  mdes,  by  the  same  force. 

One  of  the  greatest  imjjrovements  in  the  common  plows  is  the  use 
of  steel,  and  chilled  cast  iron,  which  is  even  harder  and  more  durable 
than  steel.  This  improvement,  together  mth  forms  better  adajited  to 
meet  and  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  soO,  has  much  reduced  the 
draft  of  plows  and  eased  the  work.  A  plow  that  represents  a  type 
of  the  modern  improved  implements,  and  which  deserves  more 
extended  notice  in  this  chapiter  than  has  been  already  given  to  it,  is 

THE   ROLAND  CHILLED   PLOW. 

(See  Blustration,  iiarje  39.) 

The  shape  of  this  plow  is  such  that  the  whole  fi-ont  of  it  is  a  sharp) 
cutting  edge ;  the  material  is  harder  than  the  hardest  steel  and  wiU 
not  rust,  and  is  so  smooth  and  non-adherent  that  it  will  scoui-  itself 


27G  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

in  any  soil,  sticky  clay  and  swamp  muck  included.  The  cutting  edge 
can  be  taken  off  and  {,'rouud  shaiiiwben  desired;  the  laud  side  inclines 
from  the  unplowed  ground,  and  so  relieves  the  fiiction;  tLe  standard 
cannot  choke,  and  an  aiTangement  of  the  heel  enables  the  form  of  the 
fuiTOw  to  be  changed  with  ease,  and  so  balances  the  plow  that  it  can 
be  held  steadily  with  a  very  little  exertion  of  the  plowman. 


THE  SLIP  SHARE. 

To  avoid  the  fi-equent  change  of  shares,  and  the  extra  cost  of 
replacing  them,  a  reversible,  self-shaqsening  shp  point  is  now  made. 
"V\'lieu  the  bottom  of  this  point  is  worn,  and  the  plow  tends  to  run 
out  of  the  ground,  by  reason  of  the  rounded  point,  the  slip  point  is 


^ 


taken  out  and  reversed,  and  thus  doubles  the  length  of  its  useful  hfe. 
AVhen  it  is  wholly  worn  out  a  new  point  is  put  in  in  place  of  it,  and 
thus  the  share  is  made  to  last  as  long  as  the  plow,  and  seldom  needs 
renewing. 

THE  SWIVEL  PLOW. 

The  old-fashioned  side  hill  plow  has  recently  been  so  much 
improved  that  it  is  now  used  for  level  plowing  with  much  advantage. 
By  the  adjustment  of  the  coulter  the  fvuTow  shce  is  cut  even  in  going 
either  way,  and  one  former  difficulty  in  its  use  has  been  avoided. 
These  plows  have  not  been  used  so  freely  as  they  deserve  to  be, 
when  wc  consider  the  great  advantage  in  theii'  use  by  avoiding  all 
dead  fuiTows,  and  the  perfectly  level  plowing  of  tlie  land,  from  one 
V)ack  fuiTow  in  the  centre  of  the  field  to  each  side,  tlius  laying  all  the 
furrows  of  each  half  of  the  field  in  the  same  direction.  As  no  ' "  lands  " 
ai-e  made,  the  haiTow  and  the  sowing  of  the  seed  or  the  planting  may 
follow  the  plow  immediately,  and  the  seed  thus  be  deposited  in  the 
fresh,  moist  soU.  This  makes  a  gi'eat  saving  of  time,  which  in  the 
sjiring  may  often  be  of  considerable  impoilance. 


Plows. 


277 


THE  DOUBLE  MOLD  BOARD  PLOW. 

This  plow  is  used  for  oj^ening  dioUs  for  j)lantiug  potatoes  and  in 
prej^aring  the  gi'ound  for  roots,  so  that  manure  may  be  deposited  in 
these  for  the  benefit  of  the  crops.     It  may  also  be  made  of  valuable 


use  in  opening   ditches  for  making   drains,  and  every  well  stocked 
faiTn  will  find  use  for  it. 


THE  Sl'LKY  PLOW  AND   PLOW  SULKY. 


The  greatest  present  improvement  in  plows  is  the  sulky  or  riding 
plow,  by  which  the  work  of  the  jjlowman  is  wholly  relieved,  and  he 
may  now  ride  at  his  ease,  with  uothiup;  more  to  do  than  to  guide  his 


278 


How  THE  Fahm  Pays. 


team.  The  ■wheels  are  arranged  so  that  the  plow  runs  level;  the 
draft  is,  of  coui'se,  reduced  to  a  minimum,  because  the  weight  of  the 
plow  does  not  rest  U2)0n  the  gi'ouud.  It  is  provided  vWth  a  foot  lever, 
bv  which  the  driver  can  either  hold  the  plow  to  its  place  in  hai-d 
ground  or  wholly  lift  it  out  of  it.  The  plow  can  tm-n  a  squai-e  corner 
^-ithout  leaving  the  groimd,  and  it  has  only  one  lever  by  which  all 
the  changes  required  in  its  work  are  made.     AVith  this  plow  a  cripisled 


man,  having  but  one  leg,  is  able  to  work  as  well  as  an  able-bodied 
man.  and  cases  have  occuiTed  in  which,  on  the  death  of  a  fanner,  his 
widow  and  daughters  have  been  able  to  work  the  fann  and  support 
themselves  without  the  aid  of  hired  labor.  "With  mowers  and  reapers, 
riding  haiTows,  and  cultivators,  there  was  only  requii-ed  the  riding  plow 
to  till  the  whole  bill,  and  this  is  done  now  by  more  than  one  excellent 
implement  of  this  kind.  The  engraving  here  given  represents  a  plow 
sulky  which  can  be  attached  to  any  plow  in  a  few  minutes,  and  so 


Sulky  Plows. 


279 


makes  a  sulky  plow  of  any  ordinary  f)low.  The  cost  of  this  attach- 
ment alone  is  $35  only,  and  with  the  plow  costs  $46.  It  is  called  the 
Daniels  Plow  Sulky. 

SUBSOIL  PLOW. 

Some   soils  require   deeper  stirring  than  can  be   given  by  the 
common  plow.     This   deep   stin-iug   of   tlie   soil,    at  times,   may  be 


equivalent  to  drainage  and  when  practiced  as  a  rule,  by  almitting 
the  au'  down  into  the  subsoil,  improves  its  quality  and  gradually 
changes  its  character.     By  following  the  common  jjlow  ■mth  the  sub- 


280 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


soiler,  the  land  may  be  broken  up  to  a  depth  of  sixteen  or  twenty 
inches,  with  much  benefit  in  all  soils  excepting  loose  sandy  loams. 

)'OT.\TU  DIGGER. 

As  cheapness  of  jiroduct  is  now  indisi^ensable  to  profit,  and  as  the 
han'esting  of  the  potato  croii  is  a  work  of  great  labor  without  an 


SUBSOIL  PLOW. 


effective  implement,  a  ]5otato  digger  that  does  its  work  well  is  very 
desirable.     The  improved  potato  digger  here  shown  has  been  fully 


1'0T.\T0   DIGGER. 


tested  and  has  been  found  quite  satisfactory  in  use.  It  ojiens  the 
rows,  i-aises  the  tubers  and  throws  them  upon  each  side  of  the  row, 
the  loose  soil  sifting  down  between  the  finger  bars  and  leaving  the 
potatoes  free  and  clean. 


THK   DI.-<C   .^MOOTHIXG  Tl.XRROW. 

This  haiTow  consists  of  a  frame  six  feet  eight  inches  by  six  feet  one 
inch,  liaving  four  sets  of  rollers  •with  fifty-eight  discs,  eight  inches  in 


SmoothtxCt  Harrow. 


281 


diameter,  upon  them.  The  discs  ou  the  front  rollers  are  set  six  inches 
apai't,  the  discs  of  each  set  working  between  the  others.  The  discs 
on  the  hind  rollers  are  three  inches  apart.  The  cross  bar  in  the 
centre  is  set  at  an  angle  with  the  frame  and  acts  as  a  leveler  and 
smoother.  This  harrow  cuts  and  giinds  the  clods  and  mellows  and 
firms  the  soil  in  an  excellent  manner,  sei"ving  the  purpose  of  a 
han'ow  and  a  roller  at  the  same  time.  It  is  especially  useful  for 
prejiaring  the  soil  for  gi'ass  seeding,  and  also  for  covering  seed  that 
has  been  sown  broadcast.  An  engraving  of  this  harrow  is  given  on 
page  44  We  have  used  the  Disc  Smoothing  HaiTow  for  three  years, 
and  find  it  the  most  valualjle  implement  in  our  garden  operations. 
Its  cost  of  125  or  $30  is  paid  ten  times  each  season. 


THE   SMOOTHING   HARROW. 

The  selection  of  the  harrow  for  any  special  work  is  of  great  im- 
poiiance.  For  harrowing  sod  ground,  for  instance,  a  common  heavy 
straight  tooth  harrow  will  undo  much  of  the  work  of  the  plow ;  while 
for  breaking  up  stubble  ground  and  firming  the  soil  prei^aratory  to 
drilling  the  seed,  it  does  excellent  sei-vice.     For  use  in  plowed  sod 


THE  8MOOTHI3TO  HABSOW. 


and  for  all  other  kinds  of  harrowing,  the  Acme  harrow  is  probably 
unsm-passed,  while  for  covering  small  seed,  or  harrowing  growing 
crops,  such  as  fall  wheat  early  in  the  spring,  and  potatoes  and  com 
immediately  after  the  planting,  and  again  after  the  plants  are  above 


282 


How  THE  Fakji  Pays. 


the  surface,  the  light  smoothiug  harrow,  with  sloping  teeth,  will  be 
found  of  great  value. 


THE   ROLLER. 

lu  the  eaily  paii  of  this  work  -we  have  frequently  spoken  of  the 
roller  and  its  iuilispensable  usefulness.  There  are  several  kiods  of 
this  implement  made.  One  is  made  of  cast  iron  sections,  having  the 
surface  covered  ^vith  sharp  projections  which  crush  the  clods  and 


quickly  reduce  them  to  powder.  The  siu-face  is  left  slightly  rough, 
which  is  a  better  condition  for  it  than  the  smooth  hai-d  sui-face  left 
by  the  common  roller.  It  is,  however,  quite  costly,  its  price  being 
$100.     The  common  rollers  are  made  of  cast  iron  sections  twelve 


Clod  Crusher  .\xd  Rollers.  283 

inches  in  length  on  the  face,  from  thi-ee  to  sis  sections  being  used; 
or  of  wood  covered  sections,  fitted  in  a  draft  fi-ame  and  having  a  bos 
on  it  which  can  be  filled  with  stone  to  increase  the  weight.  A  roller 
of  some  kind,  however,  is  indispensable,  and  those  made  with  at 
least  two  sections  are  better  than  those  made  in  one  cylinder. 


THE   HUMBLER. 

A  new  implement,  of  remai'kably  simple  construction,  but  of  un- 
doubted value,  is  called  a  "  mumbler."  Its  character  is  seen,  at  a 
glance,  from  the  engraving  here  given.  It  is  a  smoothing  harrow,  a 
cnisher,  a  leveler  and  a  smoothing  fi-ame  all  combined  in  one  simj)le 


THE   MTJMBLEB. 


implement,  and  it  is  so  made  that,  by  turning  it  over,  it  serves  as  a 
sled  or  a  stone  boat,  or  drag  for  conveying  tools  or  seed  to  the  field. 
It  is  cheaply  made,  costing  only  $12,  with  draft  chain  and  clevises. 


THE   MANURE   SPREADER. 

(.SV^  lUuMralion.  pafff  70.) 

The  principle  of  the  Spreader  is  that  of  a  substantial  cart  of  strong 
construction,  moimted  on  broad  tired  wheels.  The  floor  of  the  cart 
is  a  revolving  apron,  jirovided  with  suitable  machinery  geared  from 
the  asle,  and  when  in  gear  moves  slowly  to  the  rear,  biinging  its  load 
in  contact  with  a  swiftly  revolving  beater,   that  j)icks  the  material  to 


284  How  THE  F.uiM  Pays. 

pieces  and  scattei-s  it  evenly  over  the  land  as  the  cart  moves  along. 
By  a  simple  device  a  fast  or  slow  speed  is  given  the  apron  to  spread 
different  quantities  per  acre  as  may  be  required,  and  the  farmer  may 
know  just  how  much  manure  he  is  using  without  the  trouble  of  measur- 
ing his  field  and  manure  pile.  It  handles  all  gi-ades  of  manure  on 
the  farm,  from  the  coai'sest  to  the  finest;  also  Ume,  ashes,  muck, 
marl  or  cotton-seed,  broadc;ist  or  in  driUs,  and  when  in  operation  will 
do  the  work  of  ten  men.  It  is  thi-owu  in  gear  by  means  of  a  single 
lever  at  left  of  the  driver's  seat,  and  throws  itself  out  of  gear-  when 
the  load  is  spent.  When  traveling  to  and  fi-om  a  field  none  of  its 
machinery  is  in  motion. 

This  machine  is  of  exceeding  value  for  toj)  dressing  gi-ain  or  grass 
in  the  siwing.  The  broad  tires  caiTy  the  load  over  the  soft  ground 
without  sinking  into  it  and  sjwead  the  manure  more  evenly  than  can 
possibly  be  done  by  hand,  besides  breaking  it  up  fine  so  that  tlie 
gi'ain  or  gi'ass  is  not  smothered  in  j)laces  by  the  lai-ge  unbroken 
lumps.  Some  personal  experience  with  this  machine  has  strongly 
convinced  us  of  its  great  value.  It  can  be  made  to  spread  the  finest 
artificial  fertilizers  with  perfect  evenness,  by  fii'st  putting  on  a  load  of 
manure,  setting  the  gears  to  spread  as  little  as  five  or  even  two  loads 
to  the  acre,  and  then  scattering  the  proper  quantity  of  fertiUzer  upon 
the  top  of  the  manui'e.  As  the  revolving  floor  or  apron  feeds  the 
manure  down  to  the  spreader  or  revolving  beater,  the  manure  and 
the  fertilizer  ai-e  tkrown  out  together  with  jierfect  evenness.  As  little 
as  100  pounds  of  fertUizer  per  acre  can  be  spread  in  this  way.  Two 
minutes  is  sufficient  to  spread  a  load  of  manure  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
loads  to  the  acre. 

CULTIVATORS. 

Cultivated  or  hoed  crops  have  taken  the  i^lace  in  oxix  modern  farm 
■work  of  the  old-fashioned  summer  fallow,  in  which,  to  reach  a  certain 
end,  a  whole  season's  use  of  the  land  was  sacrificed.  "V\'e  have  learned 
to  do  better  than  this,  by  growing  what  ai'e  known  as  cultivated  crops, 
as  corn,  potatoes,  beans  and  roots.  For  these  crops  there  are  several 
valuable  implements  provided.  Perhaps  the  most  useful  of  all  these 
is  the 


PL.\NET    Jl'NIOR    HORSE    HOE,    CtTLTIVATOR,    PLOW  AND  COVERER 
CO.MBINED. 

The  various  uses  of  this  implement  are  shown  by  the  engi-aving 
here  given.     It  is  di-awn  by  one  horse,  and  from  jjersonal  experience 


CULTIVATOES. 


285 


during  several  years  past  we  cau  testify  to  its  value.  Being  wholly 
of  iron  and  steel,  except  the  handles,  it  is  light  and  durable,  and  the 
many  combinations  for  which  it  may  be  aiTanged,  all  of  which  are 
necessary  for  their  special  uses  on  the  farm,  make  it  a  very  economical 
implement.     For  corn  and  root  crops  it  has  no  superior.    It  will  work 


is  a  Civ 
PLiNET  JTTNIOE  HOBSB  HOE,  CULTIVATOB,  PLOW  AND  COVEKEB  COMBINED. 

the  sou  level,  or  throw  it  from  the  rows  of  plants,  or  turn  it  to  them,  or 
even  hiU  up  the  rows,  when  desired.  It  opens  furrows  for  jjlanting, 
covers  the  seed,  and  after  the  plants  are  up  will  do  all  the  requisite 
work  of  cultivation.     It  can  be  adapted  to  rows  of  vai'ious  vridths. 


CORN  PLANTERS. 

The  old  method  of  mai'king  out  corn  ground  both  ways  and  drop- 
ping the  seed  by  hand  is  not  jsroiitable.  Machines  for  planting  corn 
are  now  made  which  will  plant  and  finish  eight  to  twenty  acres  of 
corn  in  a  day.  Some  of  these  in  use  m  the  West  are  made  to  drop 
the  com  in  check  rows,  which  is  the  preferable  method  there;  but 
where  the  fields  are  smaller  and  where  weeds  are  not  so  abundant, 
corn  can  be  gi'own  in  diills  more  profitably  than  in  hills  marked  out 
both  ways.  For  planting  corn  in  drills,  one  of  the  most  j)opular 
machines  is 

THE   KEY.STONE   CORN   PLANTER. 

This  machine  is  simply  constructed,  so  that  any  workman  or  farmer 
can  use  it  without  difficulty,  and  it  will  drop  either  in  single  kernels 


286 


How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 


or  three  or  four  together  at  any  desired  spac«  apart.  This  method  of 
planting  will  produce  one-fourth  more  gi-ain  and  fodder  than  hill 
planting.  The  machine  is  provided  with  fom*  di'opping  rings,  and 
pinions  to  regulate  the  number  of  grains  dropped,  and  the  distance 


of  the  seed  apaii  iu  the  rows.  Another  good  machine  of  a  similar 
kind  is  the  Albany  Corn  Planter.  This  machine  will  sow  all  kinds  of 
seed  in  drills,  and  can  also  be  used  as  a  cultivator.  Both  of  them 
have  aiTangemeuts  for  appl^-ing  fertilizei-s  as  well 


GRAIN   DRILLS. 

Diilling  grain  is  more  economical  of  seed,  as  well  as  of  time,  and 
does  the  sowing  better  than  broadcast  sowing.  Diill  sown  grain 
resists  the  fi-eezing  and  thawing  of  winter  better  than  broadcast,  and 


Q&Aiy  DKILL. 


it  can  be  better  han-owed  in  the  spring.  Even  oats  are  better  to  be 
drill  sown,  and  some  fiuiners  prefer  to  drill  them  both  ways,  crossing 
the  first  sowing,  by  which  the  plants  have  more  room  and  "  tiller  "  better. 


Harvesting  Machinert.  287 

There  are  many  good  drills  iu  the  market,  the  difference  between 
them  being  chiefly  in  the  feeding  arrangement.  This  is  a  very  im- 
portant jsai't  of  the  drill,  because  it  regulates  the  flow  of  seed  and 
secures  it  from  inteiTuiDtion  or  stoppage.  The  Force  Feed  Grain 
DriU  possesses  this  special  feeding  arrangement  for  the  gi-ain  as  well 
as  for  the  fertilizer.  It  is  provided  with  a  gi-ass  seeding  attachment, 
and  also  a  land  measurer,  which  shows  the  area  of  ground  sown,  and 
also  the  rate  per  acre  at  which  the  seed  is  sown.  The  driU  commonly 
used  is  that  with  eight  tubes,  placed  eight  inches  apart. 


MOWERS  AND   REAPERS. 

There  are  a  gi-eat  variety  of  mowers  and  reapers,  and  the  modern 
ones  are  now  made  wholly  of  iron  and  steel.  The  principal  differ- 
ences between  the  leading  mowers  are  now  very  slight  so  far  as  mechan- 
ical structure,  draft  and  work  are  concerned,  and  a  choice  between 


IH£  WABBIOB  MOWEB. 


them  is  more  a  matter  of  taste,  as  regards  style  and  appearance,  than 
of  intrinsic  value.  The  Buckeye,  the  Warrior,  the  Champion  and  the 
Champion  Haymaker  are  all  excellent.  The  New  "Warrior  is  one  of 
the  most  modern  make,  and  has  a  high  reputation  for  its  simpHcity, 
strength,  ease  of  management,  light  draft  and  adai^tation  to  all  con- 
ditions of  surface  of  the  ground,  and  character  of  the  grass.     This 


288 


How  THE  Faum  Pays. 


macbine  has  no  gears  upon  the  driving  ■wheels,  and  the  rim  of  the 
wheel  is  provided  with  lugs  running  lengthwise  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  machine  from  slipping  do^vn  when  working  on  sloping 
ground.  The  cutting  bar  is  made  to  tilt  downwards  to  cut  lodged 
grass  and  there  are  several  other  valuable  improvements  in  its  con- 
struction.    It  is  made  for  one  or  two  horses. 

Tlie  necessities  of  the  grain  growers  have  greatly  stimulated  the 
inventive  genius  of  the  makers  of  reapers,  and  these  machines,  indis- 


pensable on  farms  where  even  twenty  acres  of  grain  are  produced, 
can  now  be  procured  so  cheaplj-  that  every  farmer  who  gi-ows  grain 
must  provide  himself  ■with  one  of  them.  For  the  larger  grain  growers 
self-binding  reapers,  which  not  only  cut  the  grain,  but  bind  it  into 
sheaves  and  throw  these  oflf  onto  the  ground  to  make  room  for  the 
next  ones,   are  made;  but  upon  smaller  grain  fai-ms  the  ordinary 


Hay  Carriers.  289 

reaper,  with  a  self  rake,  which  leaves  the  grain  in  gavels,  is  siiificient. 
An  excellent  machine  of  this  kind  is 


THE  WARRIOR  REAPER. 

This  machine  has  a  special  mechanism,  by  which  the  rakes  are 
brought  completely  under  the  control  of  the  operator,  and  can  be  set 
and  changed  without  the  use  of  wrench  or  other  tool  while  the 
machine  is  in  motion,  to  deliver  tho  gavel  automatically,  witli  every 
rake,  or  every  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth  or  seventh  rake,  as  may 
be  desired,  or  the  operator  may,  with  his  foot,  prevent  its  raking  alto- 
gether, enabling  him  to  cany  gavels  at  the  corners  to  make  a  clear 
track  for  the  horse  the  next  time  around,  or  he  can  deliver  the  gavel 
with  any  rake  he  pleases,  whether  the  same  is  set  to  dehver  or  not, 
and  it  can  be  set  not  to  dehver  the  gavel,  allowing  the  operator  to 
discharge  it  at  his  pleasure.  Unlike  any  other  reaper,  when  a  gavel 
has  been  delivered  vrith  the  foot  the  one  following  it  wilL  be  of 
regular  size.  If  the  operator  carries  the  gavel  on  turning  the  comer, 
the  next  rake  after  removing  his  foot  from  the  trip  will  discharge  the 
gavel,  and  the  following  one  will  be  of  regular  size.  The  small  cost 
of  this  machine,  which  is  $100,  brings  it  within  reach  of  every  farmer 
who  has  a  few  acres  to  cut. 


THE  HAY   TEDDER. 

Where  the  hay  crop  is  lai-ge  the  hay  tedder  cannot  be  dispensed 
with.  This  machine  is  used  for  stming  the  hay  so  as  to  dry  it 
thoroughly  in  the  shortest  time,  and  by  its  constant  use,  grass  and 


clover  cut  in  the  morning  can  be  made  ready  for  the  cock  at  night. 
One  of  these  machines  wiU  turn  and  spread  four  acres  in  an  hour,  so 
that  the  grass  cut  by  one  mower  can  be  turned  five  times  in  the  day, 


290  How  thj:  Fau.m  Pays. 

and  by  this  constant  turninn;  and  the  light  and  open  condition  in 
■which  it  is  left  by  the  machine,  the  hay  has  been  cut,  cured,  raked 
and  stored  in  the  bam,  all  in  one  day. 


HAY    RAKES. 

The  horse  hay  rake  is  also  one  of  the  indispensable  modem  farm 
machines,  and  is  one  of  the  necessary  results  of  the  mower.  There 
are  some  points  about  horse  rakes  which  should  be  considered  in 
making  a  choice,  and  the  principal  one  of  these  is  the  ease  of  dis- 


SELF-DISCHAKGING   H.VY  ltA££. 


charging  the  load.  In  the  seLf-dischargiag  rake  above  shown  this 
movement  is  automatic,  which  of  couree  fi'ees  the  hands  of  the  operator 
and  leaves  him  to  give  his  sole  attention  to  the  driving. 


THE  HORSE   HAY  FORK   AND  CARRIAGE. 

For  putting  hay  and  grain  away  in  the  bam  rapidly,  one  requii-es 
the  hoi-se  fork  or  elevator  and  caniage.  The  hay  fork  takes  the  hay 
from  the  load,  and  the  elevator  or  can-iage  moves  the  load  to  any 
p;u-t  of  tlie  barn,  where  it  can  be  di'oppcd.  For  unloading  grain,  or 
com  stalks,  or  fodder  corn  to  be  cut  for  ensilage,  slings  of  rope  are 
used,  these  being  hooked  onto  the  carrier. 


THE  DOUBLE  HARPOON  HAY  FORK 

is  one  of  the  most  effective  forks  made,  and  is  the  only  one  that  vriW. 
lift  loose  straw  in  an  effective  or  satisfactory  manner.     The  Nellis 


H.\Y  Forks  and  Carriers. 


291 


Harpoon  Fork  is  made  on  tlie  same  principle,  but  has  a  single  shaft. 
A  very  good  hay  carrier  is  known  as 


PORTER'S   HAY  CARRIER. 


This  runs  ujjon  a  track  of  two  by  three  and  thi-ee-quarters  inch  plank, 
■which  is  attached  to  the  'peak  of  the  bai-n  by  hooks;  the  top  of  the 


PORTEB'S  HAT  CARRTEK. 


canier  is  open  and  passes  by  the  hooks  which  hold  the  running  track. 
There  are  several  other  hay  carriers,  which  differ,  however,  very  httle 


2U2  How  THE  Fakm  Pavs. 

from  tliis  in  the  method  of  operating.  "With  the  best  hay  carriers  one 
horse  is  able  to  lift  about  2A0  lbs.  of  haj-  at  one  haul.  A  ten-horse- 
power engine  will  lift  a  whole  load  at  one  haul,  if  room  could  be  made 
to  receive  and  handle  it  conveniently.  A  single  hoi-se  will  lift  over  a 
single  pulley  about  125  lbs.  at  one  haul;  with  two  pulleys  the  power 
is  doubled,  or  verj-  nearly. 


FODDER  CUTTERS. 

Fodder  cutters  are  indispensable  for  the  profitable  feeding  of  stock. 
By  their  aid  and  use  coarse  fodder  may  be  so  prepared  and  mixed 
with  ground  grain,  bran  or  other  fine  feed,  as  to  make  it  equally 
Tiduable  as  hay.  This  is  one  of  the  points  to  which  the  fai'mer  will 
give  speciid  study,  because  it  is  useless  to  grow  good  crops  imless 
these  ai'e  expended  in  the  most  economical  manner.  By  the  use  of  a 
good  fodder  cutter,  and  ground  feed  of  various  kinds,  thi-ee  cows  or 
horses  can  be  kept  where  only  two  were  kept  on  long  fodder  or  hay 
and  whole  grain.     For  hand  or  light  power 


THE   COPPER  STRIP  FODDER  CCTTER 
is  an  excellent  machine,  as  it  cuts  easily  and  rapidly.     For  cutting 


THE  CtH-PEB  SIRIP  rODDEK  CUTTKR. 


com  stalks  and  for  tearing  them  into  pulp  for  ensilage 


Machines  fok  Preparlng  Fodder.  293 


THE   FODDER  CRUSHER 

has  been  devised.  This  is  made  on  a  new  j)rinciple,  and  is  probably 
the  best  machine  for  23i"eparing  corn  stalks  and  other  fodder  tor  feed 
for  stock.  It  is  durable,  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order  and  makes  the 
fodder  in  good  condition  for  the  stock.  There  are  two  sizes  made, 
differing  in  the  size  of  the  cylinder.     In  feeding  the  machine  the 


feeder  stands  at  the  side  and  feeds  the  fodder  in  crossways.  By  this 
process  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  fodder  will  be  broken  up  and  torn 
into  shreds  much  better  than  can  possibly  be  done  by  a  cutting  box 
of  any  kind,  and  the  fodder  is  left  fi-ee  from  those  shaii^  edges 
produced  by  the  cutting  process  when  knives  ai'e  used. 


THE   CORN  HUSKBR. 

Nest  to  a  corn  harvester,  which  so  far  has  baffled  the  inventive 
genius  of  mechanics,  the  corn  husker  is  the  gi-eatest  help  to  the  com 
grower  in  reducing  the  cost  of  his  crop.     The  only  one  in  use  is 


PHILLIPS'  SPIRAL   CORN  HUSKER. 

This  machine  does  its  work  thoroughly — stripping  every  ear,  large 
or  small,  soft  or  hard,  completely  of  its  husks  and  silk.  The  stalks 
being  crushed,  not  torn  in  pieces,  nor  left  stiff  and  hard,  make  much 
better  fodder  for  stock  and  rot  more  quickly  in  the  manui-e  heap; 
while  the  husks,  separated  fi-om  cobs  and  stems,  are  always  useful. 


294 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


or  salable  for  the  iiurpose  of  making  mattresses,  mats,  paper  stock, 
and  for  many  other  uses.  Any  ordinaiy  two-horse  power,  such  as 
used  for  threshing,  is  su£Scieut  to  operate  this  machine.     It  has  now 


been  in  operation  several  years,  and  is  liu-gely  used.  It  husks  about 
500  bushels  jser  day,  and  sepai-ates  tlie  ears  in  a  clean  state,  free 
from  the  husks,  and  these  fi'oni  the  stalks. 


CORN   SHELLERS. 

A  good  com  sheUer  should  deliver  the  corn  clean  and  free  from 
the  chaff  and  cobs.  For  small  quantities  a  sheUer  is  made  which 
does  all  this  very  wcU,  having  a  fan  attached  to  the  driving  wheel 

For  large  quantities  the  Cannon  Corn  Shellei",  so  called  from  its 
lengthened  cylindrical  foi-m,  is  in  general  use.  It  has  a  capacity  of 
about  seventy-five  bushels  per  hour. 


Farm  Grain  Mills. 


295 


FARM  GRAIN  MILLS. 

As  it  iiosts  one-tenth  of  the  value  of  the  gi-ain  fed  to  grind  it,  it  is 
a  profitable  expenditure,  where  many  stock  are  fed  and  where  suffi- 
cient power  is  available,  to  use  a  grain  mill  at  home.  A  miU  occupies 
veiy  Httle  space  and  can  usually  be  run  on  stoi-my  days  when  out- 
door work  is  susf)ended.  There  ai'e  a  large  variety  of  farai  miUs 
made,  but  it  is  advisable  to  choose  one  of  these  with  a  view  to  its 


GBIFFING  S  CORN 


durabUity  and  sohdity,  as  gTinding  is  hard  work.  The  Fanner's 
Iron  Frame  IMill  is  made  especially  for  fann  work,  and  is  simple, 
strong  and  durable,  as  all  faiin  machinery  should  be.  With  two- 
horse  power  it  is  able  to  grind  ten  or  more  bushels  per  hour,  and  the 


29G 


How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 


cutters  can  be  regulated  to  piind  fine  or  coai-se  as  may  be  desired. 
But  in  all  cases  and  for  all  kinds  of  stock,  the  finer  the  feed  is  ground, 


the  better  it  will  be  as  regai-ds  the  welftire  and  profit  of  the  animals; 
the  fine  feed  is  easily  digested  and  therefore  goes  fm-ther  in  use  than 
■when  coarsely  ground. 


Carts  are  in  general  iise  upon  English  farms,  and  doulitless  they 
might  be  made  available  upon  American  farms  to  a  much  larger 
extent  than  they  now  are.  The  gi-eat  advantages  of  carts  ai-e,  the 
ease  with  which  they  are  turned  about  in  a  small  space;  the  rapidity 
with  which  they  ai-e  luiloaded  by  tipping;  the  fact  that  but  one  hoi-se 


Farm  Carts. 


297 


is  required,  and  that  bj-  tlie  use  of  an  extra  man  in  driving  the  force 
employed  in  loading  may  by  kept  busy  without  waste  of  time  iu 
waiting  for  the  return  of  the  empty  vehicles.  Carts  are  exceedingly 
useful  for  bringing  in  roots,  com  fodder  and  other  loads  from  the 
fields,  which  can  be  dumped  very  quickly,  also  for  carrjdug  out  manure. 
When  cattle  are  fed  upon  soihng  crops  and  the  feed  is  brought 
iu  from  the  field,  it  is  frequently  a  gi-eat  saving  of  time  to  take  back 


to  the  field  a  load  of  manure  instead  of  going  empty.  Farm  carts 
should  alwaj-s  have  wide  tu'es,  foiu-  or  five  inches  at  least,  and  should 
be  made  as  light  as  is  consistent  with  strength  and  durabihty.  The 
cost  of  a  good  cart  is  fi-om  $-50  to  $70.  At  times  light  hand  carts  are 
very  useful  for  distributing  feed  in  the  stables,  and  where  twenty  or 
thirty  head  only  are  kept,  the  three-wheeled  hand  cart  wiU.  be  found 
to  save  much  time  and  labor. 


298 


How  THK  Faum  Pays. 


THE   FRUIT   EVAPORATOR. 

The  improved  process  of  (li-yin-,'  fniit  wliich  is  known  a.s  "evaporat- 
ing, "  has  added  anotlier  to  the  many  profitable  domestic  employments  of 
the  farm.  Evaporated  fruits  are  so  miu-h  better  in  quahty  than  the 
ordinary  dried  fruit,  that  they  bring  four  times  as  much  in  the  market 
and  yet  cost  less  in  labor  to  produce.  This  fact  of  course  shows  that  the 
demand  is  much  gi-eater  than  the  supply.  The  most  convenient  machine 
for  this  purpose  is  that  here  shown,  viz..  The  American  Fruit  Evaporator. 

Its  manner  of  use  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  engraving.  Tlie  fruit 
being  tirst  prepai-ed  and  sUced,  is  laid  upon  wire  frames,  and  is  carried 


gradually  through  the  drier,  in  which  it  is  exposed  to  the  hot  air 
from  the  heater  below.  This  heating  is  really  a  process  of  ripening 
Jind  develops  the  sugar  of  the  fruit,  so  that  fruit  prepared  by  this 
process  is  sweeter  than  any  other,  and  even  unripe  fruit  may  be 
passed  through  it,  and  come  out  fit  for  use  and  sale.  The  machines 
are  made  of  small  sizes  for  family  use  and  as  low  in  price  as  $25. 


Farm  Engines. 


299 


FARM   EN'GINES. 

The  use  of  steam  on  the  farm  for  such  pui-jDoses  as  cutting  fodder, 
pumping  water,  grinding  grain  and  threshing  is  now  qviite  common, 
and,  as  the  economy  and  simf)heity  of  this  power  is  better  under- 
stood, it  is  certain  that  its  use  will  be  very  much  extended.  The 
hea\ier  work,  such  as  plowing,  harrowing,  and  esjjecially  the  deep 
grubbing  of  hea\'y  clay  and  gravelly  hard  pan  soils,  will  no  doubt, 
before  long,  be  done  by  steam  power,  and  this  more  effective,  work 
will  gi-eatly  help  to  make  the  farm  pay.  For  as  horse  power  is  much 
cheaper  than  human  power,  so  steam  is  cheaj)er  than  horses,  and  it 
has  the  advantage  that  when  it  is  not  at  work  it  has  not  to  be  fed, 
nor  is  an  engine  subject  to  disease  which  shortens  the  useful  hfe  of  a 
horse  so  much. 

A  recent  exp)erience  in  the  use  of  plowing  hj  steam  both  in  Kansas 
and  in  Dakota  holds  out  the  most  sanguine  hojjes  that  in  such 
locahties  and  under  such  conditions  as  jDrevail  there,  steam  engines 
will  yet  be  used  for  plowing  with  economy  and  advantage.  The  re- 
quirements are  large  fields,  faii'ly  level  ground,  and  such  suitable 
plows  as  may  be  best  fitted  for  the  work.     The  engine  here  repre- 


E    UP  E  PUUTABLE  ENljINE 


sented  is  the  one  which  has  been  used  in  both  these  cases.  It  has 
di-awn  a  gang  of  eight  plows,  cutting  a  furrow  four  inches  deep  in 
raw  prau-ie  soil,  at  a  cost  of  one  dollar  per  acre,  and  plowing  twenty- 
uve  acres  in  ten  hours.  The  saving  in  cost,  although  very  important, 
is  not  so  great  an  item  as  the  raj)idity  with  which  the  work  can  be 
pushed  foi-ward  in  the  short  seasons,  and  another  great  advantage  is 
that  a  very  large  force  of  men  and  animals  are  not  required  to  be 


300  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

kept  over  during  a  slack  season,  so  that  they  may  be  available  when 
work  ijresses  for  a  short  time  only. 

A  portable  engine  is  much  more  useful  than  a  stationary  one,  as  it 
can  be  taken  to  its  work,  for  forcing  water  to  the  buildings,  clearing 
land  of  stone  or  stumjis,  threshing  in  the  tield,  hauling  loads,  etc.,  iind 
for  use  in  the  barn  can  be  drawn  into  its  i^lace,  where  it  will 
stand  and  work  without  any  costly  bedtling  in  permanent  masom-y. 
In  procuring  a  steam  engine  the  mistake  is  almost  invariably  made  of 
getting  too  light  and  small  a  one,  and  in  a  shoit  time  this  has  to  be 
discarded  for  the  lai'ger  one,  which  should  have  been  procured  at 
fii-st.  A  safe  iiile  in  this  resjiect  is,  where  a  thi-ee-horse  engine  is 
thought  to  be  sufficient  a  five-horse  jjower  should  be  chosen,  and  for 
all  larger  ones  a  teu-horse  engine  will  be  found  the  most  economical 
even  at  the  rather  larger  cost.     . 


CuLTCRE  OF  Vegetables  and  Fedits.  301 


CH.AJTER  XI. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  FARM  CULTURE  OF  VEGETABLES  AND  FRUITS. 


BY    I'ETER    IIEXDERSOX. 


Principal  Market  Garden  Crops. 

It  seems  appropriate  tliat  a  short  chapter  on  the  cultivation  of 
vegetables  and  fruits  should  be  introduced  into  this  work,  not  only 
for  the  information  of  the  farmer  himself,  for  his  own  private  use, 
but  also  for  the  advantage  it  may  be  to  him  in  localities  where  he 
can  dispose  of  such  products  at  a  much  greater  profit  than  he  can 
dispose  of  ordinary  farm  produce.  There  are  tens  of  thousands  of 
farmers  adjacent  to  the  smaller  towns  and  villages,  hotels,  watering 
places  and  summer  boarding  houses,  where  the  want  at  the  table, 
of  fresh  vegetables  and  small  fruits,  is  most  conspicuous.  In 
many  such  places  it  is  unquestionable  that,  if  the  farmer  would 
devote  a  few  acres  to  the  cultivation  of  fniits  or  vegetables,  or  both, 
the  chances  are  more  than  equal  that  they  would  be  found  much 
more  profitable  than  ten  times  the  amount  of  land  cultivated  in 
ordinary  farm  crops;  for  most  land  that  wiU  grow  a  good  crop  of 
corn  or  potatoes  will,  under  proper  tillage,  yield  a  good  crop  of 
either  fruits  or  vegetables.  HoAvever,  I  will  say,  that  whenever 
choice  can  be  made,  the  land  used  for  such  pui-pose  should  be  as 
level  as  possible,  and  be  of  the  nature  of  what  is  known  as  sandy 
loam ;  that  is,  a  dark  colored,  rather  sandy  soil,  overlaying  a  sub-soil 
of  sand  or  gravel.  AU  soils  that  have  adhesive  clay  for  their  sub-soils 
are  not  so  well  suited  for  vegetables,  besides  requiring  at  least  double 
the  amount  of  labor  for  cultivation.  Above  aU  things  necessary  for 
success  in  growing  either  vegetables  or  fruits,  is  manure.  It  may  be 
laid  down  as  a  settled  fact  that,  unless  manure  can  be  obtained  in 
quantity  sufficient,  the  work  is  not  hkely  to  be  half  as  remunerative 
as  where  plenty  of  it  can  be  had.  The  quantity  of  maniu-e  used  per 
acre  by  market  gardeners  around  our  large  cities  is  not  less  than  100 
tons  per  acre  each  year,  and  if  barn-yard  manure  is  not  accessible, 
concentrated  maniu-e,  such  as  bone  dust  or  suijerphosphates,  should 
be  harrowed  in  the  land  after  plowing  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than 
two  tons  per  acre,  if  no  other  manure  is  used.     For  fuller  instnic- 


302  How  THE  Faum  Pays. 

tioDS  on  this  subject  see  chapter  on  "  Manui-es,  ami  their  Modes  of 
AppHeation,"  in  this  work. 

Such  large  quantities  of  manure  per  acre  will,  no  doubt,  be  appall- 
ing to  the  average  farmer,  as  it  is  no  unusual  thing  for  a  farm  of 
fifty  acres  to  get  no  more  than  we  mai-ket  gaixlenei-s  put  on  a  single 
acre ;  but  every  one  who  has  had  experience  in  growing  vegetables 
or  fruits  knows  that  the  only  true  way  to  make  the  business  profitable 
is  to  use  manm-e  to  the  extent  here  ad^•ised.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  average  profits  to  the  market  gardener  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
large  cities,  where  he  pays  sometimes  as  high  as  $100  per  acre 
annually  for  rent,  is  at  least  $300  per  acre.  The  usual  amount  of 
ground  cultivated  by  market  gardeners  is  ten  acres,  and  they  think 
it  is  a  poor  year  when  their  profits  fi'om  that  amcuut  of  land  do  not 
average  $3, 000,  and  that,  too,  when  nearly  all  the  products  are  sold 
at  wholesale  to  middlemen,  in  large  quantities,  and  which,  before 
reaching  the  consumer,  costs  him  at  least  double  the  original  jmce 
paid.  The  fanner,  in  most  cases,  growing  vegetables  or  fniits,  has  a 
great  advantage  in  selling  direct  to  the  consumer,  and  the  small 
amount  of  land  necessaiy  for  gi-owing  these  crops  will  cost  liim  com- 
pai'atively  little,  so  that,  with  jirojier  attention,  I  think  there  is  every 
inducement  for  many  farmers  to  add  this  profitable  bi-anch  to  their 
faiTU  ojjerations.  A  case  in  point,  which  has  been  communicated  to 
me  by  a  friend,  is  as  follows:  His  farm  adjoined  a  village  of  2,000 
inhabitants.  He  had  one  year  a  large  sm-plus  of  strawbenies  and 
sweet  com,  and  had  many  appUcations  for  the  fniit  and  the  corn  by  the 
■village  people.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  employing  a  man  with  a 
cart  to  supply  this  unexpected  demand  in  the  ■\-iUage,  and  sold  the 
whole  of  these  products  at  such  prices  as  paid  a  clear  profit  of  $175 
per  acre,  which  was  about  five  times  as  much  as  the  average  value  of 
the  farm  crops.  In  addition,  the  sale  of  the  strawberries  created  a 
large  demand  for  cream,  wliieh  was  equally  profitable.  No  doubt 
this  example  could  be  followed  in  the  neighborhood  of  nearly  every 
rillage  in  the  country. 

I  will  give  in  detail  brief,  and  as  clear  directions,  for  the  culture  of 
the  leading  varieties  of  both  vegetables  and  fi'uits,  as  an  experience 
of  neai'ly  forty  yeai"s  in  the  business  may  enable  me  to  do.  Any  one, 
however,  who  may  desire  a  more  lengthy  and  elaborate  treatise  on 
the  subject,  I  would  refer  to  my  work,  ^^•ritten  especially  for  market 
gardeners,  entitled  "  Gardexesg  for  Profit.  " 

The  following  Ust  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  whose  culture  we 
describe,  are  such  only  as  are  likely  to  be  wanted  for  the  purpose 
alluded  to,  suppljnng  smaller  towns  and  villages,  hotels  and  summer 
boardinsr  bouses. 


Culture  of  Asparagus.  303 

AJl  references  made  to  quantities  of  seeds,  number  of  plants,  or 
amount  of  profits,  are  by  the  acre.  I  simply  do  this  as  a  matter  of 
convenience,  taking  the  acre  as  a  standard,  although  cultivators  wiU 
of  coiu-se  understand  that  in  application  any  amount  of  land  can  be 
used  in  the  same  proportion. 


ASPARAGUS. 

This  is  i^erhaps  one  of  the  most  profitable  vegetables  that  is  culti- 
vated. The  reason  for  this  is  the  fact  that  because  it  requires  two 
or  thrae  yoars  before  it  gives  a  full  crop,  cultivators  ai-e  usually  so 
impatient,  or  are  compelled  by  necessity,  that  they  will  plant  only 
such  crops  as  give  them  a  return  the  first  season.     That  being  the 


ASPAEAGUa 


case,  comparatively  few  jalant  asparagus,  and  hence  the  supply  is 
rai-ely  equal  to  the  demand.  It  is  a  plant  of  the  easiest  culture,  only 
requiring,  as  nearly  all  vegetables  do,  a  deep  soil  and  hberal 
manuring.  The  usual  method  has  been  to  transplant  the  Asparagus 
into  beds  five  feet  wide,  with  three  rows  planted  in  each  bed,  one  in 
the  middle  and  one  on  each  side,  a  foot  distant,  thus  bringing  the 
rows  one  foot  apart,  with  alleys  two  feet  vsdde  between  the  beds;  the 
plants  being  set  in  the  rows  nine  inches  apart.  In  planting,  a  line  is 
set,  and  an  opening  made  a  little  slanting  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight 
inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the  plants.     The  plants  are  then  laid 


304 


How  THE  Farm  Pavs. 


ayainst  the  side  of  this  ti'ench  at  a  distance  of  uine  or  ten  inches,  cai'e 
being  taken  to  fii"m  the  roots  well  ■with  the  foot.  The  plants  should 
be  covered  with  about  three  inches  of  soil,  and  immediately  after 
planting  the  beds  should  be  touched  over  with  a  rake,  or,  if  on  a 
large  scale,  the  brush  harrow,  which  wOl  destroy  the  weeda  This 
raking  or  harrowing  should  be  continued  at  intervals  of  six  or  eight 
days  until  the  jjlants  start  to  gi-ow,  when  the  hoe  or  cultivator  may 
be  apphed  between  the  rows  and  alleys,  but  the  weeds  that  come  up 
close  to  the  plants  must  of  necessity  be  taken  away  with  the  hands. 


ASPAHAOUS  DUNCHIiU 


Another  method,  and  which  probably  would  be  sinii)ler  for  the 
farmer  to  j)ursue,  is  to  line  out  just  as  for  turnips  or  mangels,  the 
hues  being  three  feet  apart,  in  which  the  Asparagus  seed  should  be 
sown  about  the  first  week  in  April  by  a  seed  drill,  using  at  the  rate 
of  six  2)ounds  to  the  acre.  This  would  be  less  expensive  than  the 
roots,  both  in  labor  and  seed.  In  the  beginning,  in  most  cases  it 
would  pi-obably  not  be  well  to  plant  more  than  one-fourth  of  an  acre, 
but  to  be  sure  of  getting  a  "stand,"  not  less  than  two  pounds  of 
seed  should  be  used  for  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  the  seed  for  which  would 
cost  about  $1,  while  the  jjlants  for  that  amoimt  of  land  would  cost 
at  least  $10,  and  there  is  more  labor  in  planting  the  roots. 
The  advantage  in  using  the  plants,  however,  is  that  a  year's  time  would 
probably  be  gained,  as  the  plants  are  usually  fi-om  one  to  two  years 
old  when  planted.     If  the  aspai-agus  crop  is  to  be  gi-own  from  seed 


DWAKF   BEiNS.  305 

in  this  way  it  is  all  important  that  the  ground  should  be  kept  clean. 
It  is  no  use  putting  in  the  crop  unless  pro^-ision  is  made  for  keep- 
ing down  the  weeds.  Othei-wise  they  would  inevitably  be  destroyed, 
as  it  is  a  jjlant  of  compai-atively  feeble  gi-owth  for  a  month  or  two. 
The  seeds  will  come  uj)  thickly  in  the  rows,  and  should  then  be  hoed 
out  to  a  distance  of  six  inches  between  the  plants.  If  the  ground  has 
been  put  in  proper  condition  by  plowing,  liarrowing  and  manuring  a 
pai-tial  crop  wUl  be  got  the  thii-d  year  fi'om  the  time  of  sowing,  and 
a  full  crop  the  fourth  year.  After  that,  the  Asparagus  bed,  with  a 
top  di'essing  of  two  or  three  inches  of  manure  every  fall,  will  last  for 
a  lifetime.  I  have  seen  beds  that  have  been  in  culture  for  over  thirty 
years  without  abating  an  iota  of  their  vigor.  Aspai'agus,  when  old 
enough  to  give  a  full  crop,  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  brings 
annually  about  $500  per  acre,  the  labor  costing,  at  the  extreme  figui-e, 
not  over  $100  j)er  annum,  so  that  a  clear  profit  of  $400  per  acre  can 
be  made  each  year.  The  kind  now  grown  is  what  is  known  as 
Colossal,  which  should  be  grown  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  It  is 
generally  known  that  the  part  used  of  the  Asparagus  is  the  young 
bud  or  shoot  coming  up,  which  is  cut  off  when  it  is  live  or  six  inches 
above  the  ground.  It  vai'ies  in  thickness  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch 
and  a  half,  and  is  tied  in  bunches  usually  weighing  about  one  pound 
each  when  sold  in  the  market. 


BEAN— BUSH,  KIDNEY  OR  SNAP. 

This  vegetable  is  so  well  known  by  every  one  who  grows  any  vege- 
tables at  all,  that  but  httle  instruction  in  its  culture  is  necessary.  It 
may  be  grown  on  poor  soil,  although  it  wiU  always  be  more  tender 
when  quicklj'  gi-own  on  rich  or  highly  manured  land.  The  bush  bean 
is  a  tropical  plant,  and  hence  should  not  be  sown  untU  the  ground 
becomes  warm.  A  good  nile  is  to  sow  it  about  the  date  of  corn 
planting,  in  rows  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  apart,  the  seed  being 
diopped  in  the  drills  at  about  two  inches  afjart  and  the  soil  drawn 
over  them  with  the  foot,  as  that  is  the  best  way  to  cover  seeds  of  this 
size.  Like  aU  crops,  after  planting,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  over  a  week  before  the  hoe  or  rake  is  apphed  to  keep  down 
the  weeds.  We  cannot  too  often  insist  on  the  necessity  of  this  for 
every  crop,  as  the  work  of  an  hour  with  a  rake  five  or  sis  daj's  after 
planting  or  sowing,  so  as  to  break  the  crust  on  the  soil,  and  destroy 
the  embryo  weeds,  will  be  more  effective  than  ten  hom-s'  labor  if  this 
is  neglected  until  three  weeks  after.  It  will  be  understood,  that  this 
crop  is  used  almost  always  in  the  pod  in  a  green,  unripe  state,  and  is 


306  How  THE  F.utM  Pats. 

rarely  ever  used  as  a  shell  bean.  To  ensure  a  succession  of  bush 
beans  tkroughout  the  season  they  should  be  sown  at  inteiTids  of  ten 
days  from  the  first  week  in  May  (or  time  of  com  planting)  until  the 
first  week  in  August.  They  are  a  faii-ly  profitable  crop,  but  not  so 
much  so  as  some  othei-s,  as  their  cultui-e  is  so  simjjle  and  easy.  The 
best  varieties  for  cultivation  are  the  Eaiiy  Valentine  and  the  Golden 
"Wax. 

BEAN  (LIMA). 

This  is  the  best  known  and  the  best  of  all  the  running  or  pole  beans, 
although  there  are  quite  a  number  of  kinds  in  cultivation.  They  are 
rather  more  tender  than  the  bush  beans,  and  a  verj-  common  mistake 
is  to  plant  them  too  early,  in  which  case  they  are  almost  certain  to  rot. 
In  the  latitude  of  New  York  they  should  not  be  planted  sooner  than  the 
middle  of  May,  and  will  come  just  as  quick  into  bearing  if  planted 
then,  as  ten  days  earlier,  besides  the  chance  of  loss  by  the  chilling  of 
the  seed.  They  should  be  planted  in  hills  fi-om  three  to  fom-  feet  apart 
and  five  or  six  seeds  in  each  hill.  The  seeds  should  be  planted  about  two 
inches  deep,  and  ai'e  better  placed  edgewise,  with  the  eye  downwards. 
In  each  hill  should  be  placed  a  pole  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  for  the 
bean  to  climb  on,  as  it  is  no  use  to  grow  it  unless  it  has  some  such  sup- 
port. This  variety  is  used  in  a  gi'een  state,  shelled  just  as  jjeas  ai'e 
used,  although  they  are  occasionally  dried  and  used  in  winter,  or 
when  good  samples  are  dried  they  can  be  sold  to  the  seed  stores  at 
well  j)aying  i^rices. 


"When  grown  for  table  use  this  root  should  be  sown  in  di"Uls  about 
one  foot  apaii,  if  to  be  worked  by  hoe  or  by  hand  cultivator,  or  two 
feet  apai-t  if  to  be  worked  by  horse  cultivator.  We  always  prefer  to 
sow  the  seed  by  hand  in  diills  about  two  or  three  inches  deep,  tread- 
ing in  the  seed  with  the  foot,  as  there  is  hardly  any  other  seed  so  easily 
dried  up  and  its  growing  properties  destroyed  as  this.  Wlien  sown  by 
hand  twenty  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  required;  or,  by  seed  diill, 
half  that  quantity.  WTien  grown  for  table  use  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
large  cities,  beets  ai'e  usually  a  very  profitable  crop,  generally  yielding 
a  clear  profit  of  about  $300  per  acre.  Upon  the  first  introduction  of 
Egyptian  beet,  a  few  years  ago,  the  crop  sold  for  $1,500  per  acre  in 
the  New  York  market,  as  it  was  ten  days  eai-lier  than  any  other  vaiiety. 
After  sowing  and  treadinjj  in  the  seed,  the  row  is  covered  up  and  the 


Beets. 


307 


gi-ound  again  firmed  by  being  beaten  down  with  the  back  of  a  spade, 
or  rolled.  The  first  crop  is  usually  sown  about  the  middle  of  April, 
and  about  the  first  week  in  May  the  plants'  will  have  shown  through 
the  ground  sufficiently  to  define  the  rows,  and  should  then  be  culti- 
vated between  to  stir  the  soil  and  keep  down  the  weeds.  After  they 
have  attained  a  height  of  three  or  four  inches  they  should  be  thinned 
out,  so  that  the  plants  are  left  four  to  five  inches  apart  in  the  rows; 
these  thinnings  are  often  used  as  spinach,  and  usually  wUl  pay  for  all 


BLOOD  TURNIP 


LONG  SMOOTH  BLOOD  BEET. 


EGYPTIAN  BEET. 


the  labor  of  thinning.  The  earliest  kind  is  that  known  as  Egyptian, 
■which  is  a  round  variety  of  a  deep  crimson  color.  The  next  in 
earliness  is  the  Blood  Turnip,  which  comes  in  some  ten  days  later 
than  the  Egj^jtian.  Another  variety,  known  as  Long  Smooth,  makes 
a  root  about  three  inches  in  diameter  and  eight  or  nine  inches  in  length, 
is  equally  tender  as  the  other  two  kinds,  although  not  quite  so  early, 
and  is  the  kind  usually  gi-own  for  winter  use.  For  the  best  manner 
of  keeping  in  winter,  see  chapter  in  this  work  on  ' '  Roots  for  Farm 
Stock." 


308  How  THE  F.UIM  Pays, 


CABBAGE  AND  CAULIFLOWER. 


As  these  are  usually  the  most  pi-ofitable  of  all  vegetable  crops,  I 
give  fuU  extracts  on  their  culture  taken  from  my  new  essay  on  that 
subject,  published  in  1883: 

Manui-e  for  the  early  cabbage  crop  should  always  be  spread  on 
broadcast,  and  in  quantit;\-  not  less  then  100  cart  loads  or  seventy-five 
tons  to  the  acre,  which  will  leave  it,  when  spread,  about  two  or  tliree 
inches  in  thickness.  It  iscjuite  rare  that  much  choice  can  be  made  in 
stable  manure,  but  when  such  is  the  case  ecjual  portions  of  cow  and 
horse  manure  is  jjrcferaljle,  not  that  there  is  much  diflerence  in  value, 
weight  for  weight,  but  that  it  is  advantageous  to  have  the  maniu'e  of 
the  cow  stable  mixed  vrith.  that  of  the  horse  so  as  to  prevent  the 
violent  heating  of  the  horse  manure,  which,  if  not  repeatedly  tui-ned, 
wiU  generate  heat  so  as  to  cause  it  to  "fire  fang"  or  burn,  which 
renders  it  comparatively  useless.  Always  bear  in  mind  that  the  more 
thoroughly  rotted  and  disintegi'ated  manure  can  be  had,  the  better 
will  be  the  results.  "\Mien  manui-e  is  thoroughly  rotted  and  short,  no 
matter  for  what  crop,  it  may  be  turned  in  by  the  plow  just  as  it  is 
spread  on  the  land ;  but  if  long,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  it  into  the 
fiuTo  w  ahead  of  the  plow  so  that  it  is  completely  covered  in.  After  plow- 
ing in  the  manure  and  before  the  ground  is  haiTowed,  our  best  growers 
in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  sow  from  400  to  500  jiounds  of  guano  or 
bone  dust,  and  haiTow  it  in  deeply,  smooth  over  with  the  back 
of  the  harrow,  after  which  the  bed  is  ready  to  receive  the  planta 

In  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  and,  in  fact,  now  wherever  the  business 
of  market  gardening  is  intelligently  followed,  the  best 

VARIETIE.S  OF  CABBAGE 

for  early  crop  are  recognized  to  be  the  "  Eai-ly  Jei-sey  "Wakefield  "  and 
"Hendersons  Eru'ly  Summer"  for  general  culture,  and  to  describe 
others  of  the  scores  named  would  be  only  confusing.  The  "  Jersey 
Wakefield  "  is  the  earhest  and  is  alittle  the  smallest,  and  is  planted  usually 
twenty-eight  inches  between  the  rows  and  sixteen  inches  between 
the  plants,  thus  requiring  from  10,000  to  12,000  plants  per  acre.  The 
"  Early  Summer  "  grows  a  Uttle  larger,  and  should  be  planted  thirty 
inches  apart  and  eighteeen  inches  between  jjlauts.  requiring  from 
8,000  to  10,000  per  acre.  The  reason  for  placing  the  rows  so  wide 
apart  and  the  plants  so  close  in  the  rows  is  to  admit  of  a  row  of 
lettuce,  spinach  or  radishes  between  the  rows  of  cabbage.  AH  of 
these  vegetables  mature  quickly,  and  can  be  cut  out  before  the  cabbage 


Growino  Cabbage  Plants.  309 

grows  enough  to  interfere  with  them,  and  it  is  necessary  that  this 
double  crop  should  be  taken  off  the  land  so  as  to  heljj  pay  for  the 
nianiu-e  that  is  so  lavishly  used,  but  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
jjroduce  a  good  crop  of  cabbages.  TVTiere  eai'ly  cabbage  is  grown 
alone  (and  for  the  farmer,  whose  labor  is  scarce,  they  had  better  be 
giown  alone),  then  it  would  be  better  to  plant  about  two  or  two  and 
a  half  feet  each  way,  so  that  cross  cultivation  can  be  done ;  and  also 
in  cases  where  maniu'e  in  sufficient  quantities  is  not  attainable,  they 
are  better  thus  planted  when  manure  has  to  be  ajiplied  in  the  hill. 
If  appUed  in  the  hiU,  a  go<jd  shoveU'ul  of  stable  manure  should  be 
used  to  each,  mixing  it  weU  with  the  soU,  but  raising  the  "hill,"  so 
called,  no  higher  than  the  general  sui'face.     The 


RAISING  OF   CABBAGE    PLANTS 

for  the  early  croj)  is  a  very  important  jjoint,  though  when  small 
quantities  ai'e  wanted  they  had  better  be  bought  from  those  who  make 
a  business  of  growing  them.     The  great  majority  of  plants  for  early 


crop  are  sown  by  the  New  York  market  gardeners  between  the  15th  and 
20th  of  September,  that  is,  when  the  "Eai'ly  Wakefield"  is  used;  but 
the  "  Eai'ly  Summer "  should  not  be  so-mi  until  the  2.3th  to  the  30th 
of  September.  C.ireful  attention  is  given  to  have  the  sowings  made  as 
near  as  possible  to  these  dates,  for  if  earher,  many  of  the  jjlants  will 
go  to  seed — j)ai'ticulai'ly  the  "  Early  Summer  "  variety.  Again,  if  much 
later  than  the  dates  last  given,  the  season  -will  be  too  far  advanced 


310  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

and  the  plants  vrould  not  be  strong  enough  to  keep  over  winter  in  the 
cold  frames. 

A  case  occiUTed  some  years  ago  in  Philadelphia  where  a  market 
gardener  sowed  "  Early  York  "  cabbage  on  the  6th  of  September; 
nearly  every  plant  ran  to  seed.  The  gardener  sued  the  seedsman  for 
damages,  got  non.suited,  as  he  desen'ed,  as  the  seedsman  had  no 
difficulty  in  showing  that  other  gardeners  who  had  pui-chased  this 
same  seed,  and  who  had  sown  it  at  the  proper  time  (in  that  latitude, 
20th  September),  had  no  such  bad  resulta 

In  about  thirty  days  from  the  time  cabbage  seed  is  sown  in 
September,  the  plants  are  of  the  right  size  to  "  prick  out,"  or  trans- 


H£XDEItSO>  S  FARTT  STTfSIER  CABBAGE. 

plant  into  the  cold  frames.  The  plant  must  be  planted  down  to  the 
tii-st  leaf,  the  root  well  firmed  with  the  dibber — about  500  is  the 
number  allowed  for  a  three  by  sis  feet  sash.  The  cold  fi-ame,  as 
most  gardenei^s  know,  is  simply  two  boards  run  parallel  six  feet  apart, 
the  back  board  being  ten  inches  and  the  front  one  seven  or  eight 
inches.  "We  generally  have  all  our  cabbage  plants  transplanted  here 
from  the  seed-bed  to  the  cold  frames  by  1st  November,  and  it  seldom 
happens  that  we  have  the  weather  cold  enough  to  have  the  sashes 
put  on  before  the  end  of  NoTember.  We  are  repeatedly  asked  the 
question, 

WHAT   DEGREE  OF  FROST  C.\BBAGE   PLANTS  WILL  STAM) 

in  the  frames  before  being  covered  with  the  sash.  Much  depends 
on  the  condition  of  the  plants;  it  sometimes  hajipens  that  after  the 
transplanting  is  finished  in   October   (we  usually  be^n   the  trans- 


Management  of  Hot  Beds  and  Cold  Frames.  311 

planting  in  the  frames  about  the  15th)  that  we  have  a  continuation  of 
comparatively  warm  weather,  which  induces  a  quick  and  soft  growth 
in  the  plants,  which,  of  coiuse,  renders  them  very  susceptible  of 
injury  from  fi-ost.  When  in  that  condition,  we  have  seen  them  injured, 
when  the  thermometer  only  marked  tweutj'-seven  above  zero  or  but 
hve  degi-ees  of  frost;  while  if  gradually  hai-dened  by  being  exposed 
to  chilly  nights,  they  would  receive  no  injury,  even  when  the  ther- 
mometer mai-ks  ten  or  twelve  above  zero.  This  will  be  well  under- 
stood when  we  remember  that  in  midwinter,  when  covered  with  sash 
alone,  they  sustain  a  cold  often  for  days  together  of  ten  degrees 
below  zero,  but  then  of  course  they  have  been  gi-adually  inured  to  it. 
In  sections  of  the  country  where  the  thermometer  falls  to  fifteen  or 
twenty  degi-ees  bilow  zero,  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  straw  mats  or 
shutters  over  the  glass.  At  aU  times,  fi'om  the  time  of  putting  sashes 
on  in  fall  until  taking  them  off  in  spring  (which  is  usually  from  15th 
March  to  April  1st),  abundant  ventilation  should  be  given,  so  as  to 
render  them  as  Lardy  as  possible.  The  sure  indication  that  they  ai-e 
in  the  "frost  proof"  condition  is  when  the  leaves  show  a  bluish  color, 
which  they  get  when  they  have  been  gi-adually  hai-dened  o&.  Al- 
though the  most  of  the  Jersey  market  gardeners  still  use  the  cold 
fi-ames  for  gi-owing  the  bulk  of  their  early  cabbage  crop,  yet  of  late 
years  the  system  of  sf)ring  sowing  and  transplanting,  and  sometimes 
even  without  ti-ansplanting,  is  also  used  to  a  considerable  extent. 
This  is  usually  done  by  sowing  the  seeds  thickly  (about  one  ounce 
to  tlu'ee  sashes)  in  hot-bed  or  green-house  about  Febmaiy  1st  and  trans- 
planting into  a  shght  hot-bed  about  Mai'ch  1st,  j^lacing  about  GOO  or 
700  in  a  three  by  six  feet  sash.  The  hot-beds  must,  of  course,  be 
carefully  protected  by  straw  mats  from  fi'ost,  and  with  the  projjer 
attention  to  ventilation  and  watering,  fine  jilants  can  be  obtained  by 
April  1st.  We  ourselves  have  grown  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million 
plants  each  spiing  in  this  manner  for  years  vfith  most  satisfactory 
results.  Another  plan  is  to  sow  the  cabbage  seed  in  cold  fi-ames  from 
15th  Februaiy  to  March  1st,  or  even  later  for  second  early.  By  this 
method  one  ounce  of  seed  is  enough  for  five  or  sis  sashes,  and  it  had 
better  be  sown  in  rows  at  six  inches  apart,  a*  thus  sown  the  au-  gets 
better  around  the  plants,  making  them  stronger.  "When  the  seed 
is  so-wn  in  the  cold  fi-ames  in  this  way,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  frost  should  be  excluded  by  covering  the  glass  with  straw  mats 
and  shutters,  for,  of  course,  unless  kept  above  the  j)oint  of  fi-eezing, 
the  plants  cannot  grow.  The  cold  frames  to  be  used  for  this  ^Jui-jjose 
should  be  placed  in  the  warmest  and  most  sheltered  place  possible, 
the  soil  should  be  hght  and  well  enriched  with  slwrt  manurs,  nicely 
dug,  leveled  and  raked  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.     If  sown  in 


312  How  THE  F.vioi  Pavs. 

drills,  they  should  be  about  two  inches  deep;  if  sown  broadcast, 
it  is  best  to  "  chip  "  the  j^-ound  all  over  with  a  steel  rake  so  as  to  sink 
the  seed  to  the  depth  of  au  inch  or  so,  but  in  both  cases  do  not  omit 
to  firm  the  soil  by  pattin;;  the  surface  over  with  the  back  of  the  spade. 
All  these  directions  for  spring  sown  plants  are  given  for  the  latitude 
of  New  York,  where  operations  of  planting  cabbage  plants  in  the 
ojjen  ground  is  usually  begun  about  25th  March  and  finished  by  the 
middle  of  April.  For  it  must  be  always  borne  in  mind  that  cabbage, 
being  a  hardy  plant,  when  wanted  for  an  early  crop,  its  setting  out 
in  spring  should  be  done  in  any  section  as  soon  as  the  land  is 
drj'  enough  to  work.  As  a  guide,  we  may  say  that  whenever  spring 
crojis  of  rye,  wheat  or  oats  can  be  sown,  cabbage  may  safely  be 
planted  in  the  open  field,  for  if  jilants  have  been  properly  hardened 
they  wUl  not  be  injured  after  being  planted  out,  even  by  eight  or  ten 
degrees  of  fi'ost. 

The  conditions  in  the  different  Southern  States  are  so  vaiied  that 
it  is  not  easy  to  give  directions.  It  may  be  taken,  however,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  that  in  any  section  of  the  country,  where  the  thermometer 
does  not  fall  lower  than  fifteen  o/wce  zero,  cabbage  plants  should  lie 
sown  about  1st  October,  left  (without  coveiiag)  in  the  seed-beds  all 
winter,  and  transjilauted  to  the  oi^en  gi'ound  as  soon  as  it  is  fit  to 
work  in  spring,  say  Febi-uary  or  March.  In  some  sections,  where 
the  fall  weather  continues  fine  into  November,  transplanting  is  done 
in  that  month  where  the  crop  is  to  mature.  After  planting  iu  the 
field,  no  crop  takes  so  kindly  to 


HOEING  OR  Cl'I.TIVATING 

as  cabbage.  In  ten  days  after  the  planting  is  finished,  cultivation 
should  begin.  If  the  cabbages  have  been  set  two  or  two  and  a  half 
feet  apart  each  way,  then  the  horse  cultivator  is  the  best  pulverizer, 
but  if  a  crop  has  been  sown  or  planted  between  the  rows  of  cabbage, 
then  a  hand  or  wheel  hoe  can  only  be  used — we  ourselves  now  use 
the  wheel  hoe  exclusively  and  find  it  a  saving  of  three-fourths  in  labor, 
with  the  work  better  done. 

The  price  at  which  early  cabbage  is  sold  now  varies  so  much  at 
difl'erent  dates,  and  in  difl'erent  jiarts  of  the  country,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  anything  like  accurate  figiu-es,  the  range  being  jiU  the 
way  from  $2  to  $12  per  100.  Perhaps  $4:  would  be  a  fair  average  for 
"Wakefield"  and  $5  for  "Early  Summer."  so  that  counting  11,000  as 
the  average  per  acre  of  the  former  and  !),000  of  the  latter,  we  have 
respectively   $440   per   acre  for    "Wakefield"   and   $450  for  " Eai-ly 


Transplahtixg  the  Cabbage.  313 

Summer."  These  are  tlie  wholesale  prices  for  large  markets,  like 
New  York.  In  smaller  cities,  where  the  product  is  sold  direct  to  the 
consumer,  one-third   more  would  likely  be  obtained. 

LATE  CABBAGE 

are  such  as  matui-e  during  the  mouths  of  September,  October  and 
November,  the  seed  for  which  is  sown  in  open  ground  in  jNIay  or 
June.  Perhaps  the  best  date  for  sowing  for  general  crop  is  about 
1st  of  June.  We  alwaj's  prefer  to  sow  cabbage  seed  for  this  jiurpose  in 
rows  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart,  treading  in  the  seed  with  the  feet 
after  sowing  and  before  covering;  we  then  level  with  a  rake  length- 
wise \\dth  the  rows  and  roU  or  beat  down  with  the  back  of  a  sjjade, 
so  as  to  exclude  the  air  from  the  soil  and  from  the  seed.  Sown  in  this 
way  cabbage  seed  wiU  come  stronglj'  ujs  in  the  driest  weather, 
and  is  less  likelj'  to  be  injured  by  the  black  flea  than  if  it  made  a 
feeble  growth.  As  the  ground  used  for  late  cabbage  only  yields  one 
crop,  unless  manui-e  is  cheap  and  abundant,  it  will  not  often  j)ay  to 
use  it  in  the  profusion  required  for  the  early  cabbage,  so  that  it  is 
usual  to  mamu'e  in  the  hUl,  as  is  done  for  early  crojj,  if  with  stable 
manure,  but  when  that  is  not  attainable,  some  concentrated  fertilizer 
such  as  bone  dust  or  guano  should  be  used,  using  a  good  liandful  for 
each  hiU,  but  being  careful  of  course  to  mix  it  well  with  the  soil  for 
about  nine  or  ten  inches  deep  and  wide.  In  this  way  about  300  pounds 
per  acre  will  be  needed,  when  6,000  or  7,000  plants  are  set  on  an  acre. 
In  our  practice,  we  find  nothing  better  than  pure  bone  dust  and 
guano  mixtd  together.  For  further  information  on  this  subject, 
see  chapter  on  "Manures  and  Modes  of  AijpUcation,''  in  this  work. 
In 

TRANSPLANTING  CABBAGE 

from  the  seed-bed  to  the  open  field  in  summer,  the  work  is  usually 
done  in  a  dry  and  hot  season — end  of  June  or  July — and  here  again 
we  give  our  oft-repeated  warning  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  having 
every  plant  properly  fii-med.  If  the  planting  is  well  done  with  the 
dibber,  it  may  be  enough,  but  it  is  often  not  well  done,  and  as  a 
measure  of  safety  it  is  always  best  to  turn  back  on  the  rows  after 
planting  and  press  alongside  of  each  plant  with  the  foot.  This  is 
quickly  done,  and  it  besides  rests  the  planter,  so  that  he  can  with 
greater  vigor  start  on  the  next  row.  In  some  sections  of  the  country, 
pai-ticularly  in  the  New  England  States,  six  or  eight  cabbage  seeds 
are  planted  in  the  hills,  and  when  of  the  height  of  two  or  three  inches 


314 


How  THE  Faum  Pays. 


are  thinned  out  to  one  plant  iu  each  hill  This  we  think  not  only  a 
slower  method,  but  is  otherwise  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  it  compels 
the  iiianiu'e  to  be  placed  for  three  or  four  weeks  iu  the  gi'ouud  before 
the  plant  can  take  it  up,  to  saj-  nothing  of  the  thi-ee  or  four  weeks' 
culture  necessary  to  be  done  before  the  seedliDgs  in  the  hill  get  to 
the  size  of  the  plants  when  set  out     The  cultivation  of  late  cabbage 


is,  in  all  respects,  similar  to  that  of  earl}-,  except  as  it  is  usually 
planted  alone;  the  work  is  done  entirely  by  the  horse  cultivator,  the 
rows  and  jjlauts  in  the  rows,  lieing  according  to  the  kind,  from  twenty- 
fom-  to  thirty  inches  apart.  There  .are  a  gi-eat  number  of  kinds  oftered 
in  the  different  seed  lists,  but  experienced  cidtivators  confine  them- 
selves to  but  veiy  few  kinds.  These  we  give  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  most  approved:  "  Henderson's  Selected  Late  Flat  Dutch,"  "Ameri- 
can Dinimhead,"  and  ''  ]Murblchead  ^laiumoth."  The  late  cabbage  seU 
all  the  way  from  $2  to  $10  per  100;  but  it  is  always  a  safe  crop  for 


Winter  KEEPracx  of  Cabbage.  315 

the  farmer,  because  if  he  is  unable  to  sell  the  cabbage  for  table  use, 
they  will  pay  even  at  $2  per  100  as  a  food  for  sheep  or  cattle. 

In  adtlition  to  these  the  "American  Drumhead  Savoy"  is  grown  to 
a  considerable  extent,  audit  is  really  surprising  that  it  is  not  grown  to 
the  exclusion  of  nearlj'  all  other  sorts,  as  it  attains  nearly  as  much 
weight  of  crop,  and  is  much  more  tender  and  finer  in  flavor.  The 
"Green  Scotch"  and  "Brown  German  Kale"  belong  to  the  cabbage 
famUy,  but  do  not  form  heads.  The  curled  leaves  of  the  whole  jjlant 
can  be  used,  and  are,  like  the  "Savoy,"  much  finer  in  flavor  than  the 
plain  head  cabbages,  particularly  after  having  been  subjected  to  the 
fi-ost  in  fall.     There  are  various  methods  of 

KEEPING  CABBAGES   IN  WINTER. 

It  is  best  to  leave  them  out  as  late  as  possible,  so  that  they  can  be 
lifted  before  being  frozen  in.  In  this  latitude,  they  can  be  safely  left 
out  until  third  week  in  November.  They  are  then  dug  or  pulled  up, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  turned  upside  down — the 
roots  up,  the  heads  down — ^just  where  they  have  been  gro«dng,  and 
the  heads  placed  closely  together  in  beds,  six  or  eight  feet  wide,  with 
alley's  of  about  same  width  between,  care  being  taken  to  have  the 
ground  leveled  so  that  the  cabbages  will  set  evenly  together.  They 
can  be  left  in  this  way  for  three  or  four  weeks,  or  as  long  as  the 
ground  remains  so  that  it  can  be  dug  in  the  aUejs  between  the  beds, 
the  soil  fi'om  which  is  throvm  in  on  the  beds  of  cabbage,  so  that 
when  finished  they  have  a  covering  of  sis  or  seven  inches  of  soil,  or 
sufficient  to  cover  the  roots  completely  up.  Sometimes  they  are 
covered  up  immediately  on  being  lifted,  by  plowing  a  furrow, 
shoveling  it  out  wide  enough  to  receive  the  heads,  then  plowing  so  as  to 
cover  up,  and  so  on  till  beds  six  or  eight  feet  wide  are  thus  formed. 
This  plan  is  the  quickest,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage,  if  the  season 
proves  mild,  of  having  the  cabbages  covered  up  too  soon  by  the  soil, 
and  hence  more  danger  of  decay.  After  the  gi'ound  is  frozen,  stable 
litter,  straw  or  leaves,  to  the  depth  of  thi-ee  or  four-  inches,  should  be 
thrown  over  the  cabbage  beds,  so  as  to  prevent  excessive  freezing, 
and  to  facilitate  the  getting  at  the  cabbages  in  hard  weather. 

IN.>^ECTS. 

The  insects  that  attack  the  cabbage  tribe  are  various,  and  for  some 
of  them  we  regret  to  say  that  we  are  almost  helpless  in  arresting 
their  ravages.  Young  cabbage  plants  in  fall,  or  in  hot-beds  in  spring, 
are  often  troubled  with  the  aphis,  or,  as  it  is  popularlj'  known,  the 
"green  fly"  or  "green  louse."     This  is  easily  destroyed  by  having 


316  How  TBE  F.U5M  Pats. 

the  plants  dusted  orer  once  or  twice  with  tobacco  dust  This  same 
insect,  of  a  blue  color,  is  often  disastrous  to  the  growing  crop  in  the 
field,  jiiid  on  its  first  appearance,  tobacco  dust  should  be  apphed.  a«, 
of  coui-se,  if  the  cabbage  are  headed  up  it  could  not  be  used. 
Another  insect  which  attacks  them  in  these  stages,  is  a  species  of 
slug,  or  small  eateri)iUai- — a  green,  glutinous  insect,  about  one-fourth 
or  one-half  inch  iu  length.  This  is  not  quite  so  easily  destix)yed  as 
the  other,  but  will  also  succumb  to  a  mixture  of  one  part  white  hellebore 
to  four  jiarts  Hme  dust,  sprinkled  on  thick  enough  to  sUghtly  whiten 
the  plants.  This  same  remedy  we  found  to  be  the  most  efficacious  in 
preventing  the  ravages  vf  the  black  flea,  or  "jumping  jack,"  that  is 
often  so  destructive  to  cabbage  plants  sown  or  planted  in  open 
ground  during  May  and  June,  but  in  this  case  its  application  may 
have  to  be  repeated  daUy  often  for  two  weeks. 

Another  most  troublesome  insect  is  the  cabbage  cater])illar,  which 
attacks  the  crop  often  when  just  beginning  to  head.  This  is  the  laiTie 
of  a  species  of  small  white  butterfly,  which  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
crop  in  May  or  June.  "SMien  fields  of  cabbage  are  isolated,  or 
where  neighbors  can  be  found  to  act  in  unison,  the  best  plan  is  to 
catch  the  buttertiies  with  an  insect-catching  net  as  soon  as  thej"  show 
themselves.  This  is  the  most  eflVetive  and  quickest  way  to  get  rid  of 
them.  However,  if  that  has  been  neglected,  the  catei^pillar  can  be 
destroyed  by  dusting  white  hellebore  on  the  cabbages,  but,  of  coiu^se, 
this  cannot  be  done  when  the  heads  ai'e  matured  enough  to  be  ready 
to  use,  as  the  hellebore  is  to  some  extent  poisonous,  though  used 
when  the  plants  su-e  about  half  gi'own  it  wiU  do  no  harm,  as  the  rains 
viiH  have  washed  it  sufficiently  oflf  by  the  time  they  head  up.  The 
insects  here  described  are  not,  probably.  !iU  that  afliict  the  cabbage 
crop.  A  letter  just  received  from  a  gentleman  in  Montgomery, 
Ala.,  says  that  the  young  cabbage  plants  in  that  region  are  often  swept 
iu  twenty-four  houi-s  by  a  small  green  woitq — a  species  of  slug  or  cater- 
pillai",  no  douV)t  The  remedy  for  all  such  is  white  hellebore  powder, 
which  had  better  be  dusted  on  the  plants  once  a  week  as  a  preventive, 
before  the  insect  makes  its  appearance.  In  fact,  all  remedies  against 
insects  are  best  used  as  preventives,  or  at  least,  on  the  verj-  first  appear- 
ance of  the  pest  But  the  insect  enemies  which  attack  the  roolji  of  the 
cabbage  are  not  so  easy  to  destroy.  In  fact,  with  the  wire  worm  and  cab- 
bage maggot  we  are  almost  helpless,  as  far  as  my  experience  has  gone. 
For  the  latter,  which  is  the  worst  enemy,  a  remedy  has  recently  been 
recommended  to  me,  which,  as  yet,  I  have  had  no  opportunity  to  test 
It  is  to  make  a  hole  with  the  dibber,  five  or  six  inches  deep,  close  to 
the  root  of  each  plant,  and  drop  into  it  nine  or  ten  drops  of  bi-sulphide 
of  carbon,  closing  up  the  hole  again.     Last  year  the  cabbage  and 


The  Cabbage  Maggot.  317 

cauliliower  in  our  "trial  grounds"  were  attacked  by  the  cabbage  mag- 
got at  the  roots  early  in  May.  A  small  handful  of  Peruvian  Guano 
was  nt  once  strewn  around  each  plant  and  hoed  in  around  the  roots. 
This  at  once  started  an  unusual  vigor  of  gi'owth,  which  sustained  the 
plants  until  they  matured  excellent  heads.  Understand,  the  Guano  did 
not  injure  the  insect,  it  only  enabled  the  cabbage  to  outgrow  its  attack. 
For  the  destruction  of  the  insect  which  causes  the  excrescence  known 
as  "  club  root "  in  cabbage  a  heavy  dressing  of  lime  in  fall  and  spring 
•sviU  check  it  to  a  great  extent.  In  fact,  on  lands  adjacent  to  the  shores 
of  New  Yor];;  Bay,  where  the  soil  is  mised  with  oyster  shell,  "  club  root " 
is  rai'ely  seen,  cabbage  having  been  grown  on  some  fields  successively 
for  fifty  j'ears  without  a  trace  of  it  being  seen,  showing  that  the  insect 
that  causes  the  "club  root"  cannot  exist  in  contact  with  lime;  for  it 
is  found  on  lands  where  there  is  no  oyster  shell  deposit,  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  distant,  and  cabbages  cannot  be  gro^vn  two  years  in  succession 
on  the  same  land,  unless  heavily  di-essed  with  lime,  and  even  then  it  is 
always  deemed  safest  never  to  plant  cabbages  two  years  in  succession 
on  the  same  gi'ound ;  for  while  such  crops  as  onions  show  but  little 
benefit  by  rotation  with  other  crops,  cabbages,  perhaps  more  than 
anything  else,  are  benefited  by  such  alternation;  and  when  it  can  be 
done,  nothing  is  better  than  to  let  the  cabbage  crop  be  alternated 
with  grasses,  such  as  German  miUet,  timothy  or  clover,  or  a  crop  of 
oats  or  rye.  This  is  the  method  pursued  by  many  of  the  Long  Lsland 
mai'ket  gardeners,  who  gTow  for  the  New  York  market,  where  their 
lands  are  cheap  enough  to  allow  them  to  do  so ;  but  the  gai'deners  of 
Hudson  County,  New  Jersey,  which  is  in  sight  of  New  York  City, 
whose  lands  now  are  limited  in  area,  and  for  which  an  average  of  $50 
per  acre  rentispaid  per  annum,  cannot  well  afford  to  let  then-  lands  lay 
thus  comparatively  idle,  and  in  consequence  do  not  now  raise  as  fine 
crops  as  the  lands  thus  ' '  rested  "  by  the  gi-ass  or  gTain  crops. 

If  the  land  for  the  cabbage  crop  is  of  a  kind  suitable  to  grow  a 
good  crop  of  corn  or  potatoes,  and  is  tilled  or  fertilized  in  the 
manner  advised,  it  is  rare  indeed  that  a  crop  will  fail  to  head,  if  the 
plants  are  in  good  condition,  and  have  been  properly  planted,  unless 
they  are  attacked  by  the  maggot  or  "  club  root."  In  our  trial 
grounds,  where  over  a  hiindred  difterent  stocks  of  cabbage  are  tested 
each  year,  we  have  found  that  every  kind  of  cabbage  tested,  early  or 
late,  have  produced  solid  heads,  showing  that  wJien  the  conditions  are 
right  all  kind:i  of  cabbages  will  head  up  and  produce  a  crop.  A  circum- 
stance came  under  our  notice,  in  the  summer  of  1882,  which  well 
illustrates  the  necessitj'  for  care  in  planting.  We  had  sold,  some 
time  in  Febraary,  a  large  lot  of  our  "  Early  Summer  "  cabbage  seed 
to  two  market  gardeners  in  Eochester,  N.  Y.     The  orders  were  filled 


31H  How  THE  Farm  Pats, 

from  tlie  same  bag  of  seed.  Some  time  about  the  end  of  June  one 
of  the  men  wrote,  sa's-ing  that  he  had  evidently  got  some  si)urious 
kind  of  cabbage  from  us,  as  his  neighbor  was  marketing  his  crop, 
while  in  his  field  of  ten  acres  he  had  not  a  head  lit  to  cut,  nor  was 
there  any  aj)pearance  of  their  ever  doing  so,  he  thought  Investiga- 
tion showed  that  no  maggot,  "  club  root"  or  other  insect  was  affecting 
the  roots;  the  land  wan  nearly  identical  with  that  which  had  made  a 
successfid  croji,  and  had  been  ecjually  well  manured  and  cultivated. 
So  the  only  probable  solution  of  the  matter  was  that  the  plants  in  the 
case  of  failure  had  been  Inoufhj  planted  and  had  failed  to  make  a 
promjit  start,  as  in  the  other  case,  where  the  planting  had  been 
proj)erly  done,  so  that  while  the  one  lot  advanced  without  a  check, 
the  growth  of  the  other  lot  was  arrested.  This  was  undoubtedly  the 
case,  for  there  could  be  no  cause  for  the  difference  unless  on  some 
such  hypothesis.  But  there  was  a  fortunate  sequel  to  the  case.  It 
luckily  hapjjcned  that  a  heavy  rain  stonn  oceiuTed  while  the  cab- 
bages were  yet  in  this  unheaded  condition.  This  started,  as  it  were, 
a  second  growth,  which  resulted  in  their  forming  splendid  heads  by 
August  1st,  at  a  time  when  cabbages  were  scarce,  which,  luckily  for 
the  owner,  brought  a  much  higher  price  than  had  they  matured  at 
the  proper  season,  in  June  or  July.  The  result  was  fortunate  for  us, 
who  had  sold  the  seed,  for  had  not  rain  come  so  opportimely,  the 
crop  might  never  have  headed  \ip,  and  it  would  then  have  been  hard 
to  have  convinced  the  man  that  he  had  not  been  furnished  with 
spurious  seed.  "What  has  been  advised  for  cabbage  crops,  either 
early  or  late,  is  exactly  the  culture  necessary  for  a  crop  of 


CAULIFLOWER. 

Cauhflower  being  a  plant  of  more  deUcate  constitution  than  cabbage, 
it  requires  to  be  more  carefully  handled  ;  for  instance,  whore  the  cab- 
bage plants  in  the  cold  fi-ames  will  keep  safely  over  winter  in  this 
latitude,  with  no  covering  but  the  glass  sash,  cauhflower  plants  require 
the  use  of  straw  mats  over  the  sashes,  as  the  plant  is  much  more 
easily  hiu't  by  frost.  In  fact,  it  is  better  never  to  keep  the  jjlants 
through  the  winter  ;  those  sown  in  Febi-uaiy,  and  traus))laiited  into 
cold  fi-ames  in  Mai'ch,  and  jjlanted  in  the  open  ground  in  April,  as 
recommended  for  spring  sown  early  cabbage,  being  better.  The 
plants,  however,  must  be  stju'ted  early  enough  so  that  they  can  be 
set  out  not  later  than  middle  of  April,  for  if  not  rooted  well  before 
Avarm  weather  sets  in,  they  will  either  "button" — that  is,  form  small, 
stunted  flowers — or  else  fail  entirely  to  head  up.     Cauliflower  delights 


Culture  of  Cauliflower. 


319 


in  a  cool  atmospnere,  and  never  does  well  when  the  season  is  hot  and 
dry,  unless  complete  irrigation  can  be  given  when  the  jjlant  is  about 
half  grown.  If  this  can  be  done  the  crop  is  certain.  We  have  grown 
in  this  manner  nearly  an  acre  for  many  yeai's,  the  crop  seUing  for  an 
average  of  $1,200  per  acre  annually,  and  that  was  before  we  hacj 
introduced  the  now  famous 


known  as  "  Henderson's  Early  Snowball,"  which  is  ahead  of  aU  other 
kinds  in  its  certainty  to  make  a  crop.  The  next  in  succession  to  this 
is  the  "  Early  Erfiui,"  which  is  again  succeeded  by  the  "  Early  Paris, " 


HENItEBSON'S  EARLY  SNOWBALL  CAULIFLOWER, 


but  neither  of  these  in  any  resjject  is  equal  to  the  "  Snowball."  For 
late  crop  the  varieties  known  as  "  Algiers,  and  Erfui-t,"  are  the  kinds 
usually  grown.  The  plants  are  obtained  by  sowing  at  the  same  dates 
as  for  late  cabbages.  It  is  planted  three  feet  each  way  and  cultivated 
exactly  as  late  cabbages,  and  often  sells  as  high  as  $25  per  100  in 
November  and  December.  We  are  of  the  opinion,  however,  that  the 
"  Snowball,"  of  which  twice  the  number  can  be  grown  per  acre,  wiU 
prove  a  more  profitable  crop  even  for  late  than  the  "  Algiers,"  as  it  is 


320 


How  THE  Fakm  Pats. 


always  more  certain  to  form  heads.  It  is  not  once  in  twenty  years 
that  a  variety  of  vegetables  or  fruit  makes  such  an  advance  in  earliness 
and  quiility  as  this  "  Snowball  "  cauliflower,  and  we  have  much  satis- 
faction in  the  knowledge  that  we  were  the  tirst  to  bring  it  into  cultiva- 
tion, about  five  yeai-s  ago.  It  is  now  grown  to  almost  the  entire 
exclusion  of  all  other  e:u-ly  kinds  of  cauliflower  in  this  country,  and 
hunch-eds  have  succeeded  both  North  and  South  in  raising  a  crop 
fi'om  this  variety,  who  had  previously  completely  failed  with  all  other 
kinds.  In  cauliflowers,  as  in  cabbages,  it  is  folly  to  attempt  the  experi- 
ment of  many  kinds.  Long  experience  has  taught  us  that  two  or 
three  of  each,  for  early  and  second  early,  is  aU-suflicient  Although 
our  seed  catalogues  enumerate  scores  of  kinds,  gardeners,  who  know 
what  they  ai'e  about,  fight  shy  of  all  except  those  whose  merit  has 
been  proved  beyond  any  question  of  a  doubt  For  this  reason,  we 
oulv  give  the  names  of  such  as  we  hwiv  to  be  the  best 


The  cultivation  of  this  vegetable  is  almost  identical  with  that  given 
for  the  beet,  excepting  that  the  crop  may  be  thinned  out  a  little  closer; 


DAXVKBS  CAKBOT: 


EAB1.T  ECARLET  SHORT  HOBS  CARBOT. 


that  is,  caiTots  may  be  allowed  to  stand  at  a  distance  of  three  or  four 
inches  apart,  while  the  beet  requires  five  or  six  inches.  This  is  a 
pai-ticularly  safe  crop  for  the  farmer,  and  he  can  never  go  far  wrong 


Carrots. 


321 


in  growing  plenty  of  it,  as  it  is  a  hardier  root  than  beet,  and  can  be 
left  uutn  late  in  the  fall  and  dug  at  leisure  times,  but  always  before 
there  is  danger  of  its  being  frozen  in;  and  will  always  sell  at  a  fair 
price  even  as  feed  for  horses  and  cattle,  rarely  bringing  in  our  markets 
less  than  $1.00  per  baiTel.  The  average  crop  on  suitable  soils  is  about 
300  barrels  to  the  acre.  The  carrot  crop  has  one  advantage  over  many 
others — if  the  gi-ouud  is  fairly  good,  it  may  be  grown  without  manure, 
pai'ticularly  on  lauds  that  have  been  broken  for  potatoes  or  com  the 
year  previous.     I  might  say  here  that  the  seed  of  the  carrot,  being 


BAI.F  LONG  SxnMP  CAfiROT. 


very  small,  is  easily  affected  by  drought,  and  gi-eat  care  should  be 
taken  to  firm  it  in  the  soil  well,  and  I  would  ask  the  reader,  if  he  has 
not  ah-eady  been  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  importance  of  iirming 
seeds,  to  read  the  chapter  given  in  this  work  on  the  "  Use  of  the  Feet 
in  Sowing  and  Planting."  The  kind  used  for  table  purposes  is  the 
Early  Horn,  a  short,  beautifully  colored,  dark  orange  variety.  For 
a  second  crojj  the  Half  Long  is  grown.  That  used  for  farm  cultui-e 
is  known  as  Long  Orange,  or  the  Danvers.  The  quantity  of  seed 
required,  if  sown  by  di'iU,  is  four  to  six  pounds  per  acre ;  if  sown 
by  hand,  eight  to  twelve  pounds  per  acre.  When  sold  at  retaU  for  table 
use  it  is  equally  profitable  as  beets,  but  comparatively  few  carrots  are 
wanted  in  the  summer  months. 


322  How  THE  Faum  Pays. 


CELERY. 

Celery  is  annually  becominff  of  more  and  more  importance  as  a  vege- 
table crop.  Thousauils  of  acres  of  it  are  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of 
all  oiu-  large  cities;  of  late,  in  the  x-icinity  of  New  York,  the  demand  has 
been  iu  excess  of  the  siip])ly,  and  the  extraordinary  circumstance  of  a 
vegetable  of  this  description  Ijeing  sent  from  Michigan  to  Kew  York 
occurred  last  yeai'.  The  soil  and  cUmate  of  Michigan  seem  to  be 
particulaiiy  suited  to  the  growth  of  Celery,  and  the  sami)les  sent  to  New 
York  exceeded  auj-thiug  gi-own  in  tlie  neighborhood,  and  brought 
a  2)rice  sufficient  to  justify  the  heavj'  fi-eight  fi-om  that  gi-eat  distance. 
CJelery  requires  rich  soil  and  heavy  manuring  to  have  it  of  the  best 
(juaUty;  although  on  land  that  has  not  been  used  for  it  before,  such 
us  following  after  j)otatoes  or  corn,  fine  crops  may  be  raised,  if  the 
ground  is  iu  good  heart,  without  extra  manuring.  As  a  little  more 
requu'es  to  be  said  on  the  cultiu-e  of  this  crop  than  a  good  many 
other  vegetables,  I  insert  the  following  from  my  Horticultiu'al  Essays, 
published  in  1882,  which  contains,  iu  my  oi)iniou,  about  all  the  informa- 
tion necessary  on  the  subject. 


ON  THE  GROWING  AND  PRESERVING  OF  CELERY  FOR    WINTER. 

The  seeds  ai-e  sown  on  a  well  jjulverized,  rich  border,  in  the  open 
groiuid,  as  early  in  the  season  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  (For 
instructions  in  sowing,  see  article  beaded  "  Use  of  the  Feet  in  Sowng 
and  Planting.")  The  bed  is  kept  clear  of  weeds  untU  Jul}',  when  the 
plants  ai'e  set  out  for  the  crop.  But  as  the  seedling  plants  ai'e  rather 
troublesome  to  raise,  when  for  private  use  only,  and  as  they  can 
usuallj'  be  purchased  cheaper  than  they  can  be  raised  on  a  small  scale, 
it  is  scai-cely  worth  while  to  sow  tlie  seed.  But  when  ^vanted  in 
(liumtity,  the  plants  should  always  be  raised  by  tlie  gi'ower,  as  Celery 
plants  are  not  only  difficult  to  transplant,  but  are  usually  too  expensive 
to  buy  when  the  crop  is  grown  to  sell.  The  Eui'opean  plan  is  to  make 
a  trench  six  or  eight  inches  deep  in  which  to  ]ilant  Celery;  but  our 
violent  rain  storms  in  summer  soon  showed  us  that  this  plan  was  not 
a  good  one  here,  so  we  set  about  planting  on  the  level  surface  of  the 
gi'ound,  just  as  we  do  with  all  vegetables.  Celery  requires  an  abun- 
dance of  manure,  which,  as  usual  with  all  other  crops,  must  be  well 
mixed  and  incorporated  with  the  soil  before  the  Celery  is  set  out. 
When  the  ground  is  well  prepared,  we  stretch  a  line  to  the  distance 
required;  and  beat  it  slightly  with  a  spade,  so  that  it  leaves  a  mark  to 


CuLTn'ATioN  OF  Celery.  323 

show  where  to  place  the  plants.  These  are  set  out  at  distances  of  six 
inches  between  the  plants,  and  usually  four  feet  between  the  rows, 
when  tlie  Celery  is  to  be  "  banked  "  uj)  for  early  or  fall  use;  but  when 
grown  for  winter  use,  fi-om  two  to  three  feet  between  the  rows  is  suffi- 
cient. Great  care  must  be  taken,  in  ijutting  out  the  Celery,  to  see 
that  the  j)lant  is  set  just  to  the  depth  of  the  roots;  if  much 
deeper,  the  "  heart "  might  be  too  much  covered  up,  which 
would  impede  the  growth.  It  is  also  important  that  the  soil  be 
well  23"'Cked  to  the  roots  in  planting,  and  this  we  do  by  retiuTiing 
on  each  row,  after  f)lanting,  and  pressing  the  soil  against  each  plant 
finiily  -s^ith  the  feet;  and  if  the  operation  can  be  done  in  the  evening, 
and  the  j)lants  coijiously  watered,  no  further  attention  will  be  requii-ed. 

Planting  maj'  be  done  any  time  fi'om  the  25th  of  June  to  the  second 
week  in  August.  After  pilanting,  nothing  is  to  be  done  but  keep  the 
crop)  clear  of  weeds  untU  Sei^tember;  by  that  time  the  handling 
process  is  to  be  begun,  which  consists  in  drawing  the  eaiih  to  each 
side  of  the  Celery,  and  pressing  it  tightly  to  it,  so  as  to  give  the  leaves 
an  uj)ward  gi'owth  prepai'atory  to  blanching  for  use.  Supf>osing  this 
handling  process  is  done  by  the  middle  of  September,  by  the  first 
week  in  October  it  is  ready  for  "banking  up,"  wliich  is  done  by 
digging  the  soil  from  between  the  rows,  and  laying  or  banking  it  up 
with  the  spade  on  each  side  of  the  row  of  Celery.  After  being  so 
banked  up)  in  October,  it  will  be  read}'  for  use  in  three  or  four  weeks, 
if  wanted  at  that  time.  But  if,  as  in  most  cases,  it  is  needed  for  winter 
use  only,  and  is  to  be  put  away  in  trenches,  or  in  the  cellar,  as  will 
hereafter  be  described,  all  that  it  requires  is  the  operation  of  "  han- 
dling." If  the  celery  is  to  be  left  in  the  open  gi-ound  where  it  was 
grown,  then  a  heavy  bank  must  be  made  on  each  side  of  the  rows,  and 
as  cold  weather  approaches — say  in  this  latitude  by  the  middle  of 
November — an  additional  covering  of  at  least  a  foot  of  leaves  or  Utter 
must  be  closely  packed  against  the  bank,  to  protect  it  fi'om  frost;  but  it 
is  not  safe  to  leave  it  in  the  banks  where  it  grows,  in  any  section  of  the 
country  where  the  temperature  gets  lower  than  ten  degrees  above  zero. 

Perhaj)s  the  best  way  to  keep  Celery  for  family  use  is  in  a  cool 
cellar.  This  can  be  done  by  storing  it  in  narrow  boxes,  of  a  depth  a 
little  less  than  the  height  of  the  Celery.  A  few  inches  of  sand  or  soil 
are  jilaced  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  the  Celery  is  j)acked  upright, 
the  roots  being  placed  on  the  sand  at  the  bottom;  but  no  sand  or  any- 
thing else  must  be  put  between  the  stalks  of  the  Celery,  aU  that  is 
needed  being  the  damp  sand  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  the  meaning 
of  which  is,  that  before  Celery  will  blanch  or  whiten,  it  must  first 
start  at  the  root;  hence  the  necessity  of  placing  the  roots  on  an  inch 
or  so  of  damp  sand.     Boxes  thus  packed  and  placed  ia  a  cool  cellar 


324  How  THE  Fak-m  Pays. 

in  November,  will  be  blanched  fit  foi-  use  during  January,  February 
and  Mavcli,  tbon-^'h  for  succession  it  will  be  better  to  put  it  in  the 
boxes,  fi-om  the  open  ground,  at  three  difierent  times,  say  October  2otli, 
November  10th  and  November  20th.  Or  if  the  boxes  ai'e  not  at 
hand,  the  Celery  may  be  i)ut  away  ou  the  floor  of  the  cellar,  in  strips 
of  eiglit  or  nine  inches  wide,  divided  by  boanls  of  a  width  ecjual  to 
the  height  of  the  Celery.  That  is,  if  the  Celery  is  two  feet  high,  the 
boai-ds  separating  it  must  be  about  the  same  height.  The  reason  for 
dividing  the  Celery  in  these  narrow  strijjs  by  boards  is  to  prevent 
heating,  which  would  take  place  if  placed  together  in  too  thick 
masses.  The  dates  above  given  apply,  of  course,  to  the  latitude  of 
New  York;  if  further  south,  do  the  work  later;  if  further  north,  eai'licr. 
If  one  has  no  suitable  cellar,  the  Celery  can  be  very  readily 
jDreserved  in  the  manner  followed  by  market  gardeners.  Thus,  after 
it  has  been  "  handled  "  or  straightened  up,  as  before  described,  what 
is  intended  for  use  by  Christmas  should  be  dug  up  about  October 
25th;  that  to  be  used  in  January  and  Februarj-,  by  November  10th; 
and  that  for  March  use,  by  November  20th,  which  latter  date  is  as 
late  as  it  can  be  risked  here.  Although  it  'sntU  stand  quite  a  sharp 
frost,  the  weather  by  the  end  of  November  is  often  severe  enough  to 
kill  it,  or  so  freeze  it  in  the  ground  that  it  cannot  be  dug  up.  The 
ground  in  which  it  is  to  be  jDreseiTed  for  winter  use  must  be  as  diy 
as  possible,  and  so  arranged  that  no  water  can  remain  in  the  trench. 
Dig  a  trench  as  naiTow  as  jsossible  (it  should  not  be  wider  than  ten 
inches),  and  of  a  depth  equal  to  the  height  of  the  Celery;  that  is,  if 
the  plant  of  Celery  be  eighteen  inches  high,  the  trench  should 
be  dug  eighteen  inches  deep.  The  Celery  is  then  packed  exactly 
in  the  manner  described  for  storing  in  boxes  to  be  placed  in 
the  cellar;  that  is,  stand  it  as  near  upright  as  possible,  and 
pack  as  closelj'  together  as  can  be  done  without  bruising  it;  no  soil 
or  sand  must  be  j^ut  between  the  stalks.  As  the  weather  becomes 
cold,  the  trenches  should  be  gi-adually  covered  with  leaves  or  litter  to 
the  thickness  of  six  or  eight  inches,  which  will  be  enough  to  prevent 
severe  freezing,  and  enable  the  roots  to  be  taken  out  easily  when 
wanted.  Another  method  now  practiced  by  the  market  gardeners  of 
New  Jersey  is  as  follows:  before  the  aj^proach  of  very  cold  weather 
— saj'  the  middle  of  December —  the  Celery  in  the  trenches  is  pressed 
somewhat  closely  together  by  passing  a  spade  down  deeply  alongside 
of  the  trench  on  each  side,  but  about  tlu'ee  or  four  inches  from  the 
Celery.  It  is  best  done  by  two  men,  so  that  thej*  jiress  against  each 
other,  thus  firming  the  top  of  the  Celery  in  the  trench  until  it  is  com- 
pact enough  to  sustain  a  weight  of  three  or  four  inches  of  soil,  which 
is  taken  from  the  sides  of  the  trench  and  spread  over  the  Celery. 


Varieties  of  Celery. 


325 


This  earth  covering  keeps  it  rather  fresher  than  the  covering  of 
litter,  though  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather  the  earth  covering  is 
not  sufficient,  and  a  covering  of  sis  or  seven  inches  of  leaves  must  yet 
be  placed  over  the  earth  covering. 

From  200  to  500  roots  are  usuaUj-  required  for  use  by  an  ordinary 
family.  The  varieties  we  recommend  are  the  Golden  Dwarf,  Sandring- 
ham,  White  "Walnut,  and  London  Eed.    The  red  is  as  yet  but  little  used 


in  this  country,  though  the  flavor  is  better,  and  the  j)lant  altogether 
hardier  than  the  white.  A  new  variety,  known  as  the  Parsley  leaved, 
has  just  been  introduced,  which  will  be  very  useful  for  table  decoration, 
as  well  as  for  all  purposes  for  which  Celery  is  used,  as  it  is  equally  as 
good  as  any  of  the  others. 


32G  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

"We  are  often  asked  for  the  cause  of  aud  remedy  for  Celery 
rusting  or  bui-uiug.  The  cause,  we  thiiik,  is  the  condition  of 
the  weather,  which  destroys  the  tender  libres,  or  what  ai-e  called 
the  working  roots  of  the  plant,  for  we  find  it  is  usually  worse  in 
seasons  of  extreme  drought  or  moisture,  particularly  in  warm 
weather. 

We  know  of  no  remedy,  nor  do  we  believe  there  is  any.  We  may 
say,  however,  that  it  is  less  hable  to  appear  on  new,  fresh  soils,  that  are 
free  from  acids  or  sourness,  than  on  old  soils  that  have  been  surfeited 
with  maniu-e,  aud  have  had  no  rest. 

Although,  under  ordinary  conditions,  if  j^roper  vaaieties  of  Celery 
are  used,  the  crop  should  never  be  jjithy  or  hollow,  yet  we  have  found 
that  now  and  then  even  the  most  solid  kinds  of  Celery  have  become 
more  or  less  hollow  when  planted  in  soft,  loose  soils,  such  as  reclaimed 
peat  bogs,  where  the  soil  is  mostly  composed  of  leaf  movdd.  In  fact, 
on  heavy  or  clayey  soils  the  Celery  wiU  be  considerably  heavier  than 
on  lighter  soils. 

THE  WHITE  PLUME  CELERY. 

Since  writing  the  above,  we  have  this  season,  1883,  been  fortunate  in 
originating  a  new  kind  of  celeiy  known  as  the  "  White  Plume, "  a 
name  given  to  it  from  its  resemblance  in  structui'e  to  an  ostrich 
plume.  It  has  a  most  beautiful  j)innated  leaf  cut  in  segments,  and 
in  all  respects,  as  regards  quality,  is  unsurpassed  by  any  of  the  veiy 
best  kinds.  The  great  advantage  which  it  possesses,  is  a  peculiarity 
in  its  nature  that  is  going  to  do  away  with  nearly  all  the  labor  that 
we  have  heretofore  had  in  banking  or  trenching  celery.  When  the 
plant  attains  its  fuU  growth,  the  stems  and  all  the  inner  leaves  are 
white,  and  all  that  is  necessary  to  do  in  order  to  blanch  it,  is  to  draw 
or  hoe  the  soil  up  close  against  each  root  with  the  hands  aud  again 
plow  or  hoe  it  up,  and  the  work  is  done,  so  that  the  celery  will  come 
out  in  as  fine  a  blanched  state  as  other  kinds  will  do,  even  when 
banked  up,  with  a  spade,  two  feet  in  height.  This  banking  up 
with  the  spade  is  always  a  slow  process,  and  very  difficult  to  learn, 
unless  with  lai'ge  practice,  and  has  been  the  drawback  more  than 
anything  else  against  the  cultivation  of  celerj-.  This  new  kind  will 
do  away  with  all  this  labor  and  expense,  and  will  open  a  new  era  in 
celery  culture,  so  that  anybody  can  grow  it  just  as  easily  as  they  can 
grow  a  head  of  cabbage.  The  only  disadvantage  attending  this  new 
celery  is  that  fi'om  its  whiteness  and  consequent  tender  nature  it  will 
not  keep  later  than  the  middle  of  February,  but  for  fall  and  cju'ly 
winter  use  there  is  no  kind  that  wiU  answer  the   pui'pose  so  weU. 


The  White  Pi.ume  Celery. 


327 


As  the  greateist  demand  for  celery  is  at  the  Thanisgiving  and  Christ- 
mas holidays,  this  only  drawback  is  of  little  account.  For  general 
us«  we  advise  that  three-fourths  of  this  variety  be  grown,  the  other 


foiuih  being  London  Red  and  Golden  Dwarf.  The  White  Plume 
should  therefore  for  this  reason  always  be  used  as  the  first  crop,  the 
green  kinds,  whose  culture  we  have  just  described,  being  used  for 


328  How  TiiE  Farm  Pay.s. 

second  crops.  One  great  disadvantage  with  the  older  kinds  is  that 
the  work  of  banking  up  of  two  or  three  feet  requu-ed  to  be  done,  may 
in  the  event  of  severe  rain  stonus  be  Uiade  completely  useless,  as  tliese 
banks  become  saturated  with  the  rain  and  washed  doAvn  and  the 
whole  work  has  to  be  gone  over  again,  but  with  this  new  kind,  no 
banks  being  necessary,  all  such  danger  is  avoided.  About  30,000 
of  this  new  kind  of  celery  (planted  three  feet  in  the  rows  and  six 
inches  between  the  plants)  can  be  gi'own  on  an  acre.  At  the  very 
lowest  price  of  $2  per  100  roots,  $G00  would  be  the  gross  receipts. 
Estimating  $200  for  manure  and  labor,  we  have  a  net  jirotit  of  S400 
per  acre,  but  in  many  parts  of  the  country  celery  is  sold  at  twice  and 
sometimes  three  times  this  price. 

CRESS  (WATER). 

I  allude  to  this  vegetable  here,  not  to  recommend  its  cidture  to  the 
farmer  unless  under  special  favorable  conditions.  The  special  con- 
ditions requii'ed  for  it  may,  however,  occasionally  be  found,  and  in 
such  cases,  by  a  Httle  attention,  it  may  be  made  an  exceedingly 
in-ofitable  crop.  Many  a  fanner  in  the  vicinity  of  lai'ge  cities  may 
realize  more  profit  from  this  plant  on  his  fann,  with  but  little  labor, 
than  he  could  from  months  of  hard  work  in  his  corn  or  jiotato  field. 
The  following  brief  iusti-uctions  wUl  be  found  to  be  all  that  is  re- 
quired for  the  cultui'e  of  this  vegetable,  where  the  proper  conditions 
are  present  Suppose  there  is  a  stream  running  through  the  fai-m 
one  to  three  feet  deej)  and  three  to  twelve  feet  wide,  with  level  banks. 
A  simple  jjlan  of  cultivation  is  to  make  excavations  at  right  angles 
with  the  stream,  forming  sunken  beds  six  or  eight  feet  wide  and  about 
eight  inches  deep,  with  alleys  raised  between  of  the  same  width,  so 
that  the  beds  can  be  Hooded  by  the  stream,  the  i^lauts  of  the  Water 
Cress  being  planted  in  the  sunken  beds  at  eight  or  ten  inches  apart 
each  way.  Wliere  the  beds  cannot  be  drained  dry,  tlie  slips  or  cut- 
tings are  made  into  small  Italls  with  clay,  and  these  are  dropjied  into 
the  water;  they  settle  to  the  bottom,  and  the  slii)s  (juickly  take  root. 
The  advantage  of  ha^dng  the  beds  made  at  right  angles  to  the  stream 
is  that,  in  the  event  of  freshets,  the  crop  is  less  liable  to  be  washed 
out.  It  is  not  easy  to  detenuine  the  vjilue  of  an  acre  of  Water  Cress, 
as  so  much  depends  on  the  thickness  of  its  gi'owth ;  yet  I  think  it  safe 
to  say  that,  whenever  sold  in  any  of  our  lai-ge  markets,  such  as  New 
York,  Boston,  Phdadeljihia  or  Chicago,  it  would  rai'ely  fail,  at 
present  prices,  to  bring  less  than  $1,000  per  acre,  and  one  gi-eat 
advantage  of  it  is  that  it  is  so  Ught  in  proportion  to  its  value  that  from 
$100  to  S150  worth  can  be  easily  placed  in  a  single  wagon  load.     For 


Sweet  Coen. 


329 


full  pai'ticiilars  on  this  subject  I  would   again   refer   to   luj   work, 
"  Gai-deuing  tor  Profit." 

CORN  (SWEET). 

It  may  seem  presumption  in  me  to  instruct  the  farmer  how  to  grow 
corn;  but  as  theii-  methods  of  growing  this  special  variety  of  corn  for 
table  use  are  probably  not  as  well  known  as  for  the  field  vaiieties,  I 
will  here  give  them.  AU  the  viu'ieties  of  sweet  corn  may  either  be 
sown  in  rows  four  and  one-half  feet  apart  and  about  sis  or  eight 
inches  between  the  seeds,  or  i:)lanted  in  hills  at  distances  of  three  or 


four  feet  each  way,  according  to  the  variety  of  corn  or  richness  of  the 
soU.  The  smaller  and  earUer  varieties,  as  the  Tom  Thumb  and  Eai-ly 
Minnesota,  may  be  j^lanted  in  hills  two  feet  apart  each  way.  The 
taller  the  variety  or  the  richer  the  soil,  the  gi-eater  should  be  the  dis- 
tance apart.  Such  later  varieties  as  Egj-jjtian  and  Evergreen  require 
to  be  planted  at  least  tkree  feet  apart,  or  even  more,  on  very  rich 
soil.  We  make  om-  first  plantings  in  this  latitude  about  the  middle 
of  May,  and  continue  successive  plantings  eveiy  two  weeks  until  the 
last  week  in  July.  In  more  southern  latitudes,  or  in  warm,  li^-ht 
soils  at  the  north,  planting  is  begun  a  month  earlier  and  continued  a 
month  later.  I  have  rejjeatedly  sold  it  in  the  New  York  markets 
realizing  as  high  as  $200  per  acre,  and  this,  too,  at  the  first  wholesale 


330  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

price,  the  consumer  paying  about  twice  as  much.  An  ordinary  yield 
is  about  11,000  ears  to  an  acre.  In  such  cases,  however,  it  was  either 
an  early  crop  or  a  very  late  one,  biinging  two  or  three  doUai-s  per 
100  ears,  while  the  iateiTening  crops,  which  came  in  competition  with 
the  full  market,  often  sold  as  low  as  seventj'-five  cents  per  100  ears. 
The  importance,  tlien,  will  be  seen,  of  striking  the  market  at  such 
seasons  when  the  ai-ticle  will  be  sciu-ce.  The  quantity  of  seed  required 
per  acre  is  from  six  to  eight  quarts. 


CCCUMBER. 

This  vegetable  is  l)est  suited  for  warm,  rich,  sandy,  loam  ground. 
It  should  not  be  planted  until  there  is  a  j^rospect  for  settled  wjirm 
weather — in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  about  the  middle  of  !May — and 
in  hills  four  feet  apart  each  way.  The  hills  should  previously  be  pre- 
jsai-ed  by  thoroughly  mi.King  in  a  shovel  full  of  well  rotted  stable 
manure.  Li  the  absence  of  maniu'e,  a  small  hantlful  of  bone  dust,  or 
some  well  known  superphosphate,  may  be  used  instead.     In  each  hill 


IMl-UOVbU  \SHlIi;  stmE  cucu. 


should  be  planted  fi-om  eight  to  ten  seeds.  "UTien  all  danger  from 
insects  is  passed,  and  the  jjlants  ai-e  well  started,  they  are  thinned 
out  to  three  or  four  to  each  hiU.  The  fruit  should  be  gathered  while 
green,  as,  if  left  to  ripen  on  the  vines,  it  verj'  soon  destroys  their  pro- 
ductiveness. Quite  a  number  of  fai-mers  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
have  of  late  yeai's  grown  cucumbers  for  pickhng  very  largely,  some 
devoting  as  much  as  twenty  acres  to  this  piu^josc.  When  gro-s\-n  for 
I^ickUng  they  are  usually  not  sown  until  the  middle  of  July,  the 
gi-ound  used  being  such  as  has  been  so\\-n  with  rye,  oats  or  clover. 
They  are  planted  in  hills  about  foiu-  feet  apart,  and  manm-ed  as  for 
table  use,  and  it  is  claimed  that  they  give  an  average  profit  over  aU 
expenses  of  $75  per  acre.  The  kind  used  for  table  use  is  that  known 
as  the  Improved  "White  Spine;  that  used  for  pickhng  is  the  Green 
Prohfic.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  these  viu-ieties  revei-sed, 
or  the  pickhng  vaiiety  wUl  be  foimd  of  httle  use  for  the  table,  while 
the  "White  Spine  would  be  too  lai-ge  for  pickhng.  Quantity  of  seed 
requu'ed  for  cucumbers  in  hiUs,  about  two  pounds  per  acre.     An 


Cdltdre  of  Cucumbers  tok  PiCKUCsa  331 

experienced  grower  gives  the  following  information  in  regard  to  this 
crop: 

"  The  culture  of  cucumbers  for  pickling  is  very  jarofitable  under 
some  cu'cuuistances.  These  are  when  the  grower  is  near  a  large  city, 
or  has  facOities  for  disposing  of  his  product  in  a  fresh  state  to  fac- 
tories in  which  the  vegetables  ai'e  pickled  either  in  salt  or  \'inegai-,  or 
when  he  has  facUities  for  preserving  them  himself  for  sale  in  distant 
markets,  as  in  manufacturing  towns,  lumbering  or  mining  villages 
and  camps,  or  to  dealers  in  ship  stores,  or  even  to  village  stores, 
where  the  pickles  can  be  retailed  duiing  the  winter  season.  As  there 
is  a  large  and  regular  demand  for  pickles,  there  are  many  places 
where  factories  can  be  established  for  their  manufacture  with  success 
and  profit,  and  more  conveniently  in  conjunction  with  the  business  of 
cider  making,  with  a  view  to  providing  a  supply  of  pure  vinegar;  can- 
ning and  drj-ing  vegetables  and  fruits ;  making  jellies,  and  even  adding 
to  all  these  an  outfit  for  making  sorghum  syrujj  and  sugai*  from  the 
cane.  A  factory  of  this  kind  could  find  work  the  whole  year  round, 
and  would  require  only  a  very  moderate  capital  for  its  fiirnishing, 
because  the  same  building  and  much  of  the  apparatus  would  serve  for 
aU  these  purposes,  and  some  only  would  be  required  for  each  special 
use.  But  a  pickle  factory  should  be  erected  in  a  good  ajjple  country, 
where  fruit  for  cider  could  be  procm-ed  very  cheaply. 

"The  cultiu'e  of  the  cucumbers  is  very  simj)le.  Although  this 
vegetable  consists  almost  wholly  of  water,  yet  it  requires  rich  soU,  or 
at  least  a  Hberal  quantity  of  manure,  to  force  the  growth  so  quickly 
as  to  secure  the  requisite  tenderness  and  succulence.  A  light,  sandy, 
warm  soil  is  the  best.  This  is  plowed  deeply,  because  the  roots  of 
all  the  gourd  tribe  spread  widely  and  love  a  loose  soil,  in  which 
they  can  find  adequate  moisture  and  warmth.  For  the  pickling 
varieties,  of  which  the  Green  ProHfic  is  the  best  and  is  almost 
universally  gi-own,  the  ground  is  marked  out  four  feet  apart  each 
way,  a  deep  f uitow  being  made  so  as  to  leave  room  for  a  good  shovel- 
ful of  rich  compost  at  each  crossing.  This  is  worked  in  with  the 
spade  or  hoe  and  the  ground  leveled.  Five  pr  six  seeds  are  dropped 
in  each  liUl,  about  one  j)ound  of  seed  being  required  for  one  acre. 
A\Tien  the  plants  are  up  they  are  thinned  out  to  three  to  each  hiU. 
A\Taen  the  seed  is  sown  a  broadcast  dressing  of  300  or  400  pounds  of 
Peiiivian  guano  per  acre  may  be  given  with  great  advantage,  as  this 
fertUizer  seems  to  have  a  specially  good  effect  on  this  crop;  super- 
phosphate of  Ume  is  the  next  best,  and  fine  bone  flour  comes  next. 
With  this  preparation  and  -100  pounds  of  guano  jjer  acre,  costing  $15, 
we  have  grown  over  300,000  cucumbers  to  the  acre,  which  is  double 
the  average  crop  and  equal  to  about  100  to  each  hill.     The  excess  in 


332  How  THE  Fabm  Pays. 

this  case  was  clearlj'  due  to  the  fertilizer,  as  the  product  was  more 
than  doubled  by  it,  so  that  the  expenditure  of  815  repaid  nearly  $200 
in  increase  of  crop,  as  the  cucumbers  were  sold  at  $1.50  per  1,000. 
Some  attention  is  required  to  secui-e  a  good  yield.  The  ground  must 
be  kejat  loose  by  frecjucut  cultivation  untU  the  vines  cover  the  ground. 
The  main  vines  must  be  i)inched  at  the  ends  to  keep  them  ^^•ithin 
bounds  and  to  encourage  the  outgrowth  of  side  branches,  which  are 
the  most  prohfic  of  fruit.  The  main  branches  bear  chiefly  male  or 
staminate  flowers,  which  are  baiTen  of  fruit,  and  the  side  branches 
bear  the  pistillate  or  productive  flowers;  so  that  the  gi-eat  secret  in 
gi-ovfing  this  crop,  as  well  as  aU  kinds  of  cucumbers,  melons  and 
squashes,  consists  in  tliis  shortening  in  of  the  main  vine  and  the 
encoui-agement  of  the  laterals.  The  fruit  is  gathered  every  morning 
as  soon  as  it  has  reached  a  proper  size,  which  is  from  two  to  three 
inches.  These  cucumbers  are  never  cut,  but  are  always  preserved 
and  pickled  whole.  The  chief  labor  is  in  preventing  diunage  by  hce 
and  the  small  cucumber  beetle;  for  the  former  we  liud  the  best 
remedy  to  be  to  pluck  off  the  fii-st  infested  leaves,  by  which  the  other- 
wise rapid  spread  of  this  pest  is  prevented.  For  the  other  pest 
dusting  with  finely  ground  gypsum  is  the  best  and  usual  remedy." 


EGG  PLANT. 

This  vegetable  is  not  likely  to  be  much  wanted  in  country  towns, 
although  it  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  at  the  wateiing  places  in 


YonK  IMPROVED  EGU   1'L.VNT 


hotels  and  boarding  houses.  It  is  not  worth  whUe  for  the  farmer,  for 
all  he  would  be  likely  to  want  of  this  crop,  to  go  to  tlie  ti'ouble  of 
raising  his  own  plants,  as  it  is  rather  a  (hflicult  process,  and  requires 
waiTU  hot  beds  to  start  them  in  during  the  early  spiing  months.     He 


Lettuce.  333 

can  purchase  the  plants  cheaper  than  he  can  raise  them.  The  nature 
of  this  vegetable  is  very  much  similar  to  that  of  the  tomato,  being  a 
very  tender  plant,  and  shovild  never  be  set  out,  in  the  latitude  of 
New  York,  sooner  than  the  15th  of  May.  It  should  be  j^lauted  at 
distances  of  four  feet  assart  each  way.  It  wiU  begin  to  produce  its 
fiTiits  by  the  middle  of  July  and  continues  fruiting  until  September. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  single  jjlants  to  produce  ten  or  twelve  large 
fi'uits,  enough  to  fiU  a  bushel  basket.  They  are  usually  retailed  in 
our  markets  at  $1.50  per  dozen  fruits. 


This  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  universally  cultivated  of  all  vege- 
tables, and  from  its  tractable  nature  and  freedom  from  nearly  all 
insect  diseases,  it  is  easQy  managed  by  every  one.  For  main  crop  the 
seed  is  usually  sown  by  market  gai'deners  in  the  open  gi'ound,  about 
the  middle  of  September,  and  transplanted  to  cold  frames  as  soon  as 


IMP.SON   LETTUC 


large  enough  to  handle,  being  wintered  over  in  the  same  manner  as 
early  cabbage,  which  see.  But  when  sown  in  dry,  weU  sheltered 
spots  and  covered  vnth  leaves  or  litter  late  in  the  fall,  lettuce  j^lants 
win  be  safe  through  the  winter  without  glass  covering,  particular!}'  in 
southern  sections.  "We  have  often  seen  plants  in  sheltered  places, 
even  in  New  Jersey,  coming  out  in  the  spring  perfectly  fresh,  simply 
by  having  sown  the  seed  in  the  open  ground  in  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember. These  plants  that  are  sown  in  September,  it  will  be  under- 
stood, are  for  the  earh'  spring  crop,  to  be  planted  in  April  in  the  open 
ground.     For  such  as  are  wanted  for  successive  crops  sowings  may  be 


334  How  THE  Fabm  Pats. 

made  in  the  open  ground  as  early  astlie  season  opens,  sar  loth  of  April, 
until  July,  and,  as  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  transplant  in  hot  weather, 
the  best  way  is  to  sow  it  in  drills  twelve  inches  apart,  and  thin  out 
the  plants  in  the  rows  so  that  they  will  stand  eiyht  or  ten  inches 
apart-  The  crop  in  this  way  is  exceedingly  easy  to  handle;  all  that  is 
necessary  to  do  is  to  hoe  it  once,  so  as  to  keep  down  the  weeds.  It 
is  a  plant  of  comparatively  tender  growth,  and  unless  care  is  taken  to 
promptly  destroy  aU  weeds  it  may  be  quickly  choked  up  so  as  to  be 
worthless.     The  kinds  best  to  use  are  those  known  as  Black  Seeded 


KiLASULM^Eii  txmx 


Simpson  nnd  Salamander:  the  one  is  a  curled  leaved  variety,  the 
other  is  plain  or  smooth  leaved,  and  forms  a  sohd  head.  Many  of 
the  German  gai'deners  in  the  Ticrnity  of  New  York  make  an  excellent 
hving  on  half  an  acre  of  land  by  this  process  of  sowing  lettuce,  which 
they  sell  at  not  more  than  one  cent  per  head;  but  as  they  get  four 
croj^s  in  a  season,  and  the  plants  aie  set  about  one  foot  each  way,  half 
an  acre  four  times  cropped  will  sell  for  upwards  of  $800.  even  at  one 
cent  per  head.  When  lettuce  is  sold  at  retail  direct  to  the  consumer. 
it  is  fair  to  presume  that,  in  most  places,  it  will  bring  two  or  three 
times  that  amount. 


MELOX   i>rrSK). 

I  have  often  wondered  that  a  delicious  fruit,  so  easily  grown  as 
melon-s,  is  so  little  cultivated  by  fiunners  who  have  often  acres  uiwn 
acres  of  land  of  which  they  make  but  httle  or  no  use.  Melons  will 
thrive  best  in  a  rich,  light  soil,  although  there  is  no  necessity  for 
heavy  manuring  on  soils  where  a  good  crop  of  com  or  potatoes,  which 
has  been  well  manured,  has  been  gro-wn  the  previous  year.  Tsually 
a  shovelful  of  rotted  manure  or  compost  is  put  in  each  hill,  and  the 
best  growers  use  also  a  small  handful  of  guano  or  superphosphate  in 


Musk  Melons.  335 

addition.  A  clover  sod,  plowed  in,  is  esjieciaUy  favorable  for  this 
croj).  The  main  point  in  melon  growing  is  to  push  the  crop  fonvard 
as  quickly  as  possible,  so  as  to  catch  the  high  prices  which  rule  then. 
A  well  known  melon  grower  of  Hackensack,  N.  J.,  where  this  crop  is 


HACKENSACK  aiUSK  ilELON. 


largely  produced,  mentioned  an  instance  where  one  farmer  admitted 
having  lost  the  whole  of  his  late  crop  of  melons  by  a  frost,  which 
would  have  been  avoided  by  the  expenditure  of  $25  or  $30  in  guano, 
used  at  the  planting,  as  this  would  have  pushed  the  crop  forward 


MONTBEAI.  MARKET  MUSK  MELON. 


several  days  and  have  saved  it.  For  this  reason,  a  dressing  of  guano 
in  the  hih  should  always  be  used.  They,  like  cucumbers,  should  be 
planted  in  hills,  but  somewhat  wider,  from  five  to  sis  feet  apart  each 
way,  according  to  the  richness  of  the  soiL     Ten  or  twelve  seeds  are 


336  How  THE  Faum  Pays. 

planted  in  each  hill  early  in  May,  and  when  well  up  the  plants  are 
thinned  out  to  three  or  four  of  the  most  promising.  It  is  a  crop  that 
can  be  as  easily  raised  as  a  crop  of  corn,  and  when  sold  at  wholesale, 
it  is  safe  to  say,  will  pay  a  protit  of  at  least  $100  per  acre.  The 
viirietj'  most  preferred  for  this  section  is  that  known  as  Hackensack, 
wliich  is  gi'own  by  the  thousands  of  acres  for  the  New  York  market 
The  flesh  is  of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  and  is  of  the  most  dehcious 
Havor.  Another  variety  is  the  Surprise,  equally  good  in  all  respects, 
ths  flesh  being  of  a  salmon  or  pink  color.  This  variety,  however,  is 
not  so  popular  in  the  markets  as  the  green-fleshed  sorts.  The  most 
successful  gi'owei-s  greatly  increase  the  yield  of  this  crop  by  a  system 
of  pinching  the  main  vine,  so  as  to  encourage  the  lateral  shoots,  upon 
which  the  fruit  is  borne.  A  large  gi-ower  in  the  vicinity  of  Hacken- 
sack, N.  J.,  a  noted  locality  in  this  respect,  gives  the  following  details 
of  the  cultiu-e : 

^Melons  ai'e  a  speciiil  crop  which  needs  particular  care  and  culture. 
In  some  locahties  they  ai-e  gi'ovsTi  for  market  in  great  quantities.  It 
is  said  that,  on  one  evening  last  summer,  IGO  two-horse  wagon  loads, 
each  of  about  1,000  melons,  crossed  by  one  ferry  from  a  subui'b  of 
New  York  City.  And  this  was  by  no  means  an  extra  occasion.  The 
melon  season  lasts  fi-om  July  into  October,  so  that  some  idea  may  be 
gained  from  this  of  the  magnitude  of  this  business.  The  croj)  is  a 
^ery  profitable  one  when  skillfuily  cultivated,  and  often  realizes  $500 
to  $1,000  an  acre,  and  more  rai'ely  even  as  high  as  ^l.-'SOO,  when  the 
melons  ai'e  the  first  in  the  mai'ket  and  bring  the  highest  jirice  of  the 
season.  But  as  with  other  products,  these  large  jsrofits  are  only 
realized  by  those  gi-owers  whose  long  experience  and  skill  give  them 
more  than  usual  advantages.  The  methods,  however,  are  no  secret, 
and  any  one  who  will  follow  them  may  just  as  easily  meet  with  the 
same  success. 

The  most  suitable  soil  for  melons  is  a  rich,  warm,  deep,  sandy  loam 
having  a  southern  or  south-western  exposui-e.  The  latter  is  prefer- 
able, as  it  gets  the  last  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  soil  is  thus  wanned  up 
for  the  night,  and,  being  sheltered  from  eastern  and  northern  winds, 
retains  this  warmth  iintil  the  morning.  This  may  make  several  days' 
difference  in  the  ripening  of  the  crop,  which  may  be  equivalent  to 
$300  or  $400  an  acre  in  the  value  of  the  fruit.  The  best  fertilizer  is 
well  decayed  stable  manure  and  night  soil  in  equal  inu-ts,  with  a 
moderate  addition  of  Peruvian  guano  appUed  in  the  hill.  The 
manner  of  cultm-e  is  as  follows:  The  soil  is  plowed  in  the  fall  or 
ejulj'  in  the  spring  and  is  cross-plowed  the  fii-st  daj-s  of  May,  about 
twenty  loads  per  acre  of  manm-e  being  plowed  under.  The  gi-ound 
is  then  well  harrowed  and  fuiTowed  out  six  feet  apiu't  each  way.     A 


Pests  of  the  Melon.  337 

full  shovelful  of  mixed  fine  manure  and  night  soil  is  used  in  each  hiU, 
being  well  mixed  with  the  soil;  a  liberal  dusting  of  guano  or  super- 
phosphate of  hme  is  then  scattered  about  the  hill  and  sis  or  eight 
seeds  are  planted.  The  first  jilanting  is  eaiij'  in  May ;  other  plantings 
may  be  continued  through  June.  The  hQl  is  raised  two  or  three 
inches  above  the  surface,  and  is  made  about  two  feet  broad  and  quite 
flat.  AVTien  the  plants  appear  above  the  surface  they  require  protec- 
tion from  cut  worms,  which  would  otherwise  cut  the  steins  and  destroy 
them;  and  as  the  rough  leaves  appear  the  weaker  plants  are 
thinned  out  and  three  only  left.  A  good  method  of  j)rotecting  the 
plants  against  the  cut  worms  is  to  make  a  ring  of  thick  pajjer,  about 
a  foot  in  diameter  and  three  inches  broad,  and  j^lace  this  around 
them,  so  as  to  form  an  obstacle  over  which  they  cannot  cUmb.  The 
after  cultivation  consists  of  deep  plowing  at  intervals  at  least 
tvnce  and  frequent  cultivation,  until  the  vines  begin  to  rim,  when  the 
teiTuinal  buds  are  pinched  off  to  cause  the  growth  of  the  lateral 
branches.  The  main  vine  produces  chiefly  male  and  barren  flowers, 
and  if  this  is  left  to  run  the  laterals  would  not  push  out  and  there 
would  be  little  or  no  fruit.  The  lateral  vines  bear  the  female  or 
perfect  flowers,  and  to  encourage  the  growth  of  these  is  one  of  the 
secrets  of  melon  cultui-e  upon  which  the  i^rofits  depend.  The  same 
peculiarity  of  growth  is  found  in  aU  the  goui'd  tribe,  and  apj^lies  to 
squash,  cucumbers  and  water  melons,  as  well  as  to  musk  melons. 

The  pests  of  the  melon  are  hce,  the  striped  beetle,  and  the  squ.ash 
bug.  The  hce  appeaa-  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  and  are  diffi- 
cult to  get  at,  so  that  the  simplest  and  most  efifective  remedy  is  to 
flinch  off  the  afi'ected  leaves  or  the  part  of  the  vine  and  carry  it  away 
and  burn  it.  If  left  undisturbed  the  hce  fi'om  one  hiU  will  quickly 
spread  over  several  square  rods  and  completely  destroy  the  crop.  The 
striped  beetle  is  the  worst  enemy  to  deal  with.  It  lays  its  eggs  on 
the  stem  at  the  ground,  and  the  small  grubs  work  their  way  to  the 
root  and  feed  upon  it.  The  first  indication  of  their  jjresence  is  the 
wilting  of  the  leaves — "going  down"  of  the  vines,  the  gTowers  call  it 
— and  vine  after  vine  thus  goes  down,  until  at  times  the  larger  pai-t  of 
the  croj)  may  be  destroyed  when  the  melons  are  half  grown.  The  remedy 
for  tins  pest  is  to  apply  strong  tobacco  water  around  the  stem  on  the 
first  appearance  of  the  small  striped  beetle  and  repeat  it  in  a  few 
days,  and  to  repeat  it  again  as  soon  as  the  wilting  of  the  tu'st  leaf  is 
noticed.  The  fruit  begins  to  "  net  "  about  two  weeks  before  it  ripens, 
and  the  indications  of  ripeness  are  the  fi-agrant  scent,  the  softness 
of  the  blossom  end  of  the  melon,  and  the  cracking  and  easy  parting 
of  the  stem. 


338  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


MELON   (WATER). 


Water  melons  requii-e  the  same  soil  as  musk  melons  for  their  best 
development,  and  tluive  best  in  -warm  latitudes.  Unless  the  soil  is 
especially  vr&mi  and  simdy  they  do  not  usually  gi\e  as  pood  ressult 
in  the  Northem  and  Middle  States  as  the  musk  melon,  and  ai-e  now 
essentially,  for  mai-ket   imrposes,  a  plant  of  the  South  and  South- 


rUINNET'S  EABLT  WATEB  MKLON. 

■western  States,  where  hundi'eds  of  thousands  of  tlu-m  ai-e  annually 
grown  for  our  Northern  mai'kets.  The  culture  is  exactly  the  same  as 
lor  musk  melons,  except  that  the  hiUs  should  be  just  double  the  dis- 
tance apart,  namely,  nine  to  ten  feet.  Of  Viuieties,  the  Black  Spanish, 
Ice  Cream  and  Pliinney's  Early  are  the  favorites  for  this  section,  and 
the  Georgia  or  Rattlesnake  variety  in  the  Southern  States. 


OKKA,   OR  GUMBO. 

This  vegetable  is  extensively  grown  in  the  Southern  States.  Its 
long  joods,  when  young,  are  used  in  soups,  stews,  etc.,  and  ai'e  very 
imtritious.  It  is  easily  cultivated  and  grows  freely,  beaiiug  abun- 
dantly in  any  garden  soil.  It  is  sown  at  the  usual  time  of  all  tender 
vegetables,  in  May,  in  di-ills,  two  inches  deep  and  thi-ee  feet  apart, 
the  seeds  being  dropped  at  two  to  three  inches  apart. 

ONION. 

It  is  the  generally  received  oiiinion  that  onions  grow  best  in  old 
ground.  This  Ave  think  is  an  en'or;  it  is  not  because  the  ground  is 
"  old,"  or  has  been  long  cultivated,  that  the  onions  do  better  there. 


Soils  Suitable  for  Onions.  339 

but  because  such  lands,  from  Iheir  long  culture,  are  usuallj'  better 
pulverized;  and  experience  has  shown  us  repeatedlj'  that  when  new 
soil  has  been  equally  well  pulverized  and  fertilized,  an  equally  good 
crop  is  obtained,  and  usually  a  cleaner  crop,  more  exempt  from  mst 
or  mildew.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  finest  crop  of  onions  we  ever 
beheld  was  on  sandy  swamp  land,  which  had  been  first  thoroughly 
drained  and  broken  up.  In  fact,  new  soils,  iiarticularly  when  broken 
up  fi'om  pastui-e  land — tm-ned  over  early  enough  in  the  fall  so  that 
the  sod  is  rotted  comjjletely — make  excellent  land  for  onion  crops,  as 
they  are  usually  free  from  weeds.     Such  land,  however,  must  be  well 


EAELT  FL.iT  RED  OSION.  TEIXOW  DUTCH  ONION. 

pulverized,  by  the  use  of  the  plow,  harrow  and  smoothing  harrow, 
or  good  results  may  not  follow.  Much  depends  on  the  quality  of 
such  soil.  If  rather  sandy  loam,  it  will,  of  coiu'se,  be  much  easier  to 
pulverize  than  if  stiff  or  clayey  loam,  and  such  soil,  in  our  experience, 
is  always  preferable  for  most  crops.  Such  soils,  also,  are  nearly 
always  free  from  under  water,  rarely  requiring  artificial  drainage,  if 
the  land  is  level,  and  it  always  should  be  selected  as  level  as  possible 
for  the  onion  crop,  as  when  land  slopes  to  any  great  extent,  much 
damage  is  often  done  by  washing  out,  the  onion  roots  being  near  the 
surface,  and  consequently  cannot  resist  floods  as  crops  that  root 
deeper. 

Many  onion  growers,  who  make  a  specialty  of  the  business,  find  it 
is  economical  to  alternate  the  crop  with  a  green  crop  such  as  Geiman 
millet,  which  can  be  cut  for  hay  in  July,  the  "stubble"  plowed 
down  in  August,  giving  a  fresh  fibrous  soil,  clear  of  tveeds,  for  the 
onion  crop  to  be  sown  next  spring.     It  is  not  claimed  that  the  alter- 


340 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


nation  of  a  preen  crop  with  the  onions  is  a  necessity,  as  it  is  weU 
known  that  the  onion  is  one  of  tlie  verj'  few  crops  that  does  not  seem 
benefited  hy  altematinf^;  but  it  is  claimed  that  it  gives  ahnost  entire 
fi'eedoni  fi-oni  weeds,  as,  after  a  crop  of  millet  which  has  been  cut 
before  its  seed  ripens,  few  troublesome  weeds  will  come  up  the  next 
year-. 


I  have  always  held  the  opinion  that  when  well  rotted  stable  manvire, 
whether  from  horses  or  cows,  can  be  procured,  at  a  cost  not  exceeding 
$3  per  ton  dehvered  on  the  ground,  it  is  cheaper  and  better  than  any 
kind  of  concentrated  fertilizer.  It  should  be  plowed  in  at  the 
rate  of  thiiiy  tons  per  acre.     The  concentrated    fertilizers  in  the 


ronxrcAi.  onion. 


YELLOW  DANVEHS  OKIOS. 


mai'ket  are  now  so  numerous,  that  it  would  be  invidious  to  specify 
particular  brands.  We  ourselves,  excejjt  in  iising  occasionally  the 
"Blood  and  Bone  Fertilizer,"  which  we  have  proved  to  be  excellent, 
use  only  pure  Ground  Bone  and  Peinivian  Guano,  which,  for  onions, 
we  jirefer  to  mix  together  in  equal  jjai-ts,  sowing  it  on  the  land  after 
plowing,  at  the  rate  of  at  least  one  ton  ])er  acre  of  the  mixture  (when 
no  stable  manure  has  been  iised),  after  sowing  to  be  harrowed  in,  as 
described  in  "  Prejiaring  the  Ground." 

One  of  the  most  valuable  manures  for  the  onion  crop  are  the 
di'oppings  from  the  chicken  or  pigeon  house,  which,  when  mixed 
with  twice  their  weight  of  lime,  coal  or  wood  ashes,  so  as  to  disinte- 


Fertilizeks  for  Onions. 


341 


grate  and  pulverize,  may  be  sown  on  the  land  after  plowing,  to  be 
haiTowed  in,  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  tons  per  acre  of  the  mtsture. 
Night  soil,  when  mixed  with  dry  muck,  coal  ashes,  charcoal  dust, 
lime  or  hme  rubbish  as  absorbents,  and  spread  on  after  jjlowing  at 
the  rate  of  six  or  eight  tons  per  acre,  and  harrowed  deeply  in,  will 
never  fail  to  produce  a  heavy  crop  of  onions  in  any  suitable  soil 

There  ai-e  many  other  manures  that  wiU  answer  the  jjurpose,  often 
to  be  had  in  special  localities,  such  as  the  refuse  hops  and  "  grains  " 
from  breweries,  which  should  be  used  in  the  same  mamier  and 
quantities  as  stable  manure,     ^lule  fish  guano,  whalebone  shavings. 


Vr£IH£BSFI£LO  BED  ONION. 


«    1 
GIANT  ROCCA  ONION. 


or  shavings  from  horn,  when  pulverized  so  as  to  be  in  proper  condi- 
tion to  be  taken  up  by  the  plants,  are  nearly  equal  in  value  to  ground 
bone.  "Wood  ashes  alone,  spread  on  at  the  rate  of  five  or  six  tons  jser 
acre,  will  usually  give  excellent  results. 

It  is  well  ever  to  keep  the  fact  in  mind,  that  it  will  always  be  more 
profitable  to  fertihze  one  acre  of  onions  well  than  two  imperfectly. 
If  thirty  tons  of  stable  manure  or  one  and  one-half  tons  of  concen- 
trated fertilizer  are  used  to  an  acre,  the  net  profits  are  almost  certain 
to  be  lai-ger  than  if  that  quantity  had  been  spread  over  two  acres;  for 
in  all  jDrobability  nearly  as  much  weight  of  crop  would  be  got  from 
the  one  well  maniu'ed  acre  than  from  the  two  that  had  been  done  im- 
perfectly, besides  the  saving  of  seed  and  labor  in  cultivating  two 
acres  instead  of  one.     In 


342 


How  THE  Farm  Pats. 


PREPARING  THE  GROUND 

tor  the  reception  of  the  seed  (if  it  has  been  plowed  the  fall 
previous),  j)lo-wing  should  be  begun  as  soon  as  the  land  is  dry 
enough  to  work,  first  having  spread  over  the  laud  weU  rotted  stable 
maniu'e,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  tons  to  the  acre.  This  should  be  lightly 
turned  under,  jjlowing  not  more  than  five  or  six  inches  deep,  and 
covering  the  manure  so  that  it  will  be  three  or  four  inches  under  the 
surface.  For  this  reason,  the  manure  must  be  well  rotted,  othei-wise 
it  cannot  be  well  covered  by  the  plow.  If  concentrated  fertilizers 
are  to  be  used,  it  is  best  to  plow  the  land  up  roughly,  sow  tlie 
fertilizer  at  the  rate  of  one  to  two  tons   per  acre,  accoi'ding  to  its 


60CIBP0KT  YELLOW  GLOBE  ONION. 


SOITTHPORT  WHITU  (iLlUlE  ONION. 


fertUizing  proj)erties;  then  harrow  thoroughly,  so  that  it  is  regularly 
incorporated  with  the  soil.  After  haiTowing  with  an  ordinary  toothed 
hari'ow,  the  sui'face  should  be  further  leveled  with  some  kind  of  a 
"  smoothing "  haiTow,  either  Meeker's  Smootliing  Disc  HaiTow,  or 
some  sort  of  chain  liaiTow.  The  former  we  like  best,  as  the  revolv- 
ing discs  pulverize  the  soil,  to  a  dejjth  of  three  inches,  much  better 
than  it  can  be  done  by  raking,  and  the  smoothing  board,  which 
follows  in  the  wake  of  the  revolving  wheels,  makes  the  surface,  if  free 
from  stones,  smooth  as  a  board — iax  better  than  it  can  be  done  by 
rakiuK. 


Cdltration  of  Omoxs.  343 

The  gi'ound  being  tlius  prepared,  the  next  thing  is  the  sowing  of 
the  seed  (about  six  pounds  being  used  jjer  acre).  This,  of  coui"se, 
nowadays,  is  done  always  by  the  seed  drilling  machine,  of  which 
there  are  a  dozen  or  more  in  the  market,  nearly  all  of  which  do  the 
work  well.  In  our  business  at  the  present  date,  we  sell  the  Planet,  Jr., 
and  Mathew's,  giving  the  preference  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  named.  In  sowing  the  first  row,  a  line  must  be  stretched  so  as  to 
have  that  liue  straight,  after  which  the  sower  can  readily  regulate 
the  other  Unes.  The  favorite  distance  for  onion  rows  to  be  placed 
apart  is  fifteen  inches,  though  they  are  sometimes  sown  as  close  as 
twelve  inches,  leaving  out  every  ninth  row  for  an  alley,  thus  forming 
them  into  beds  of  eight  rows  each.  "Where  there  is  reason  to  believe 
weeds  may  be  troublesome,  this  plan  of  forming  in  beds  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  alley  (twenty-foiu-  inches  wide)  to  throw  the  weeds. 
"We  so  fixmly  believe  in  the  value  of  firming  in  the  seeds  after  sowing, 
that  we  advise,  in  addition  to  the  closing  and  fiiTaiag  of  the  seeds  by 
the  drill,  to  use  a  roller  besides,  particularly  if  the  land  is  Hght,  or 
where  the  soil  has  not  been  sufficiently  firmed  down.  There  is  no 
crojD  where  the  adage  of  "  a  stitch  in  time  "  is  so  applicable  as  in  the 
onion  crop;  so  that  just  as  soon  as  the  fines  can  be  seen,  which  will 
be  in  ten  or  twelve  days  after  sowing,  af)ply  the  scuffle  hoe  between 
the  rows.  There  are  a  great  many  styles  of  hand  cultivators,  many 
of  which  are  exceedingly  useful,  after  the  onions  get  strong  enough, 
after  weeding,  but  for  the  first  hoeing,  after  the  seed  shows  the  lines, 
use  the  scuffle  hoe  or  some  onion  wheel  hoe.  The  distance  at  which 
onions  should  stand  iu  the  rows  is  fi'om  one  to  two  inches,  and  if  the 
crop  is  sown  evenlj'  and  thinly  few  require  to  be  taken  out.  In  hoe- 
ing, whether  it  is  weeds  or  onions  that  are  to  be  removed,  one  thing 
should  never  be  lost  sight  of — that  when  this  oi^eration  is  done,  eveiy 
inch  of  the  sirrface  should  be  broken;  this  is  best  done  after  the 
machine,  by  using  a  wooden  lawn  rake,  all  over  the  land,  lightly 
raking  across  the  rows.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common  mistakes, 
when  weeding  or  hoeing,  if  the  laborer  sees  no  weeds,  to  pass  over 
such  portions  without  breaking  the  crust.  By  this  neglect,  not  only 
is  it  likely  that  he  passes  another  crop  of  weeds  in  embryo  under 
the  imbroken  cnist,  but  the  jjortion  unbroken  loses  the  stirring  so 
necessary  for  the  well-being  of  the  crofi.  In  our  long  experience  in 
garden  operations,  we  have  had  more  trouble  to  keep  our  workmen 
up  to  the  mark  in  this  matter  than  in  any  other;  and  I  never  fail 
when  I  discover  a  man  in  such  negligence  to  set  him  back  over  his 
work  until  he  does  it  j)roperly,  and  if  he  again  fails  to  do  so,  promptly 
dismiss  him. 


344  How  TiiK  Faioi  Pays. 

The  onion  crop  is  usually  iit  to  liaiTest  in  this  section  ft-om  5th  to 
2()th  of  August;  that  is,  when  the  seed  has  been  sown  in  early  spring, 
wliich  should  he  not  later  than  Hay  1st,  if  possible,  and  if  by  Ajiril 
1st  all  the  better.  If  the  seed  is  sown  too  late,  it  may  delay  the  time 
of  ripening,  which  may  result  in  a  complete  loss  of  the  crop;  for  if 
the  bulbs  iu-e  not  ripened  by  August,  there  is  danger,  if  September  is 
wet,  that  they  will  not  ripen  at  all ;  hence  the  gi-eat  necessity  of  early 
seeding  in  sjiring.  If  the  onion  croj)  is  gi-owiug  yery  strong,  it  wiU 
facilitate  the  ripening  jjrocess  by  bending  the  leaves  down  with  the 
back  of  a  wooden  rake,  or  some  such  ini]ilement,  so  as  to  "  knee " 
them,  as  it  is  called,  at  the  neck  of  the  bulb;  this  checks  the  flow  of 
sap  and  tends  to  rijjeu  the  bulb. 

After  the  tops  of  the  onicius  become  yellow  and  wither  up,  they 
should  then  be  jiulled  without  uunecessaiT  delay,  for  if  continued 
wet  weather  should  occur  and  delay  the  jjulling  too  long,  a  secondaiT 
growth  of  the  roots  may  be  developed,  which  would  injure  the  crop 
seriously.  After  pulling,  lay  the  bulbs  in  convenient  rows,  so  as  to 
cover  the  ground,  but  not  to  lay  on  each  other.  By  turning  them 
every  day  or  two,  in  six  or  eight  days  they  will  be  usually  dry  enough 
to  be  caiied  to  their  storage  quarters,  where  the  shriveled  tojjs  are 
cut  off,  and  the  onions  stored  on  slatted  shelves,  to  the  depth  of  six 
or  eight  inches,  in  some  dry  and  airy  place.  It  is  of  importance  to  have 
the  bottom  of  the  shelves  slatted,  so  as  to  leave  sj^aces  an  inch  or  so 
apart,  that  air  can  be  admitted  at  the  bottom  as  well  as  the  toji  of  the 
heap.  The  shelves,  when  aU  the  space  at  hand  is  to  be  made  avail- 
able, may  be  constructed  oue  above  another.  But  if  to  be  kept 
through  the  winter,  they  must  be  protected  in  some  building  capable 
of  resisting  severe  fi'ost,  or  covered  with  hay  or  straw,  as  a  protection 
against  extreme  cold.  For  although  the  onion  wiU  stand  a  moderate 
degi-ee  of  frost,  yet  any  long  continuation  of  a  zero  temperature 
would  injure.  "WTien  frozen  they  shoidd  never  be  handled,  as  in  that 
condition  they  are  easily  blemished  and  would  rot.  When  kept  in 
barrels  holes  should  be  bored  in  the  sides,  and  they  should  be  left 
unheaded  until  shipping  so  as  to  permit  the  escape  of  any  moisture 
that  may  be  generated. 

For  tiie 

INSECTS  AND  OTHER    KNEMIES 

that  attack  the  onion  crop,  I  am  much  afraid  there  are  few,  if  any, 
ort'ective  remedies.  Every  year's  expc?rienco  ■with  the  enemies  that 
attack  plants  in  the  open  tield  convinces  me  that  with  very  few  of 
them  can  we  successfully  cope.     The  remedy,  if  remedy  it  is,  for  rust. 


Profit  of  Gbowinxt  Onions.  345 

smut,  or  other  mildew  parasites,  must,  iu  my  opiuiou,  be  a  preventive 
one;  that  is,  whenever  practicable,  use  new  laud,  or  renew  the  old 
land  by  a  green  crop,  such  as  rj'e,  timothy  or  millet,  in  all  sections 
subject  to  these  diseases.  The  same  plan  had  better  be  adopted  iu 
all  sections  where  the  onion  maggot,  or  other  insects,  attack  the  croj^. 
The  theory  for  this  practice  is  that  it  is  beheved  that  nearly  all  planfs 
affected  by  insects  or  disease,  have  such  peculiar  to  themselves,  and 
that  the  germs  lay  in  the  soil  ready  to  fasten  on  the  same  crop,  if 
planted  without  intermission  on  the  same  ground,  while  if  a  season 
intervenes,  the  larva  or  germ  has  nothing  congenial  to  feed  on,  and 
is,  in  consequence,  destroyed.  In  practice,  we  usually  find  that 
cultivated  land  "rested"  for  a  season  by  a  grass  crop  gives  always  a 
cleaner  and  healthier  crop  to  whatever  vegetable  following  it. 

THE   PRODUCT 

of  the  average  onion  crop  varies  very  much,  ranging  from  300  to  900 
bushels  per  acre,  the  mean  being  about  600  bushels  -per  acre.  The 
price  is  variable,  Kke  all  perishable  commodities,  ranging  from  fifty 
cents  per  bushel,  the  price  at  which  they  usually  wholesale  iu  the 
New  York  market  in  fall,  to  $1  or  SI. 50  jjer  bushel  for  winter  and 
spring  prices.  The  estimate,  then,  of  profit  jjer  acre  may  be  given 
about  as  follows: 

Manure,  per  acre $72  00 

Plowing,    weeding  and    harvesting    crop,    per 

acre 100  00 

6  lbs.  seed,  average,  §2  per  lb 12  00 

Rent  or  interest  on  land,  jjer  acre 9  00 

Marketing  crop,  per  acre 7  00 

$200  00 

600  bushels  per  acre,  at  50c $300  00 

Cost 200  00 

Profit,  $100  00 


This  estimate  is  a  moderate  one,  for  if  the  crop  is  sold  in  spring, 
the  chances  are  that  the  profit  may  be  two  or  three  times  as  much. 


ONIOXS  SOLD  GREEN. 


All  the  foregoing  relates  to  the  onion  crop  ripened,  but  in  all  large 
cities  immense  quantities  of  onions  are  sold  in  the  green  state,  many 
of  them   before  they  have  half   attained   their  gi-owth.     To  get  the 


346  How  THE  Faiim  Pays. 

earliest  crop  of  onious  iu  tliis  couditiou,  the  onion  sets  ai'e  used, 
which  are  small  onions  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  size  of  thi'ee-quarters 
of  an  inch  diameter,  but  the  smaller  the  better,  as  they  make  a  crop 
neai-ly  as  quick  and  never  run  to  seed,  whDe  the  large  ones  occasiouallj- 
do.  Onion  sets  must  all  be  f)lanted  by  hand,  in  rows  made  by  the 
garden  marker  at  about  nine  inches  apart,  the  sets  being  planted 
from  two  to  three  inches  apart;  they  are  most  conveniently  planted  in 
beds  of  eight  rows  each,  lea^■ing  a  s^jace  of  eighteen  inches  for  an 
allejTvay.  The  green  onions  are  tied  in  bunches  of  eight  or  ten  each, 
and  often  sell  at  eight  and  ten  cents  per  bimch.  The  crop  is  usually 
begun  to  be  mai-keted  by  the  middle  of  June,  and  is  sold  ofl'  by 
middle  of  July.  This  garden  crop  of  onions  is  usually  heavier  manured 
and  requires  more  labor  than  the  field  crop,  but  its  market  value  is 
often  three  times  that  of  the  field  crop.  Onions  are  also  sold  in  this 
way  when  gi'own  from  seed,  but  of  coui'se  this  matures  two  or  three 
weeks  later  and  is  not  usuallj-  so  remimerative  as  the  green  crop  from 
the  sets. 

POTATO  ONIONS 

are  increased  by  the  bulb  as  it  grows,  spUttiag  into  sis,  eight  or  ten 
sections,  which  form  the  crop  from  which  the  "set"  or  root  for  next 
season's  jjlanting  is  obtained.  These  are  planted  in  early  spring,  in 
rows  one  foot  apart,  the  onions  three  or  four  inches  between,  and 
like  the  onions  raised  from  sets,  are  generally  sold  green,  as  in  that 
state  they  are  very  tender,  while  in  the  drj-  state  they  are  less  desir- 
able than  the  ordinary  onion. 


TOP  ONIONS, 

so  called,  are  propagated  by  the  pecuHar  proijerty  of  this  variety  of 
onion  jiroducing  a  cluster  of  small  bulblets  on  the  onion  stalk,  an  ex- 
crescence of  bulblets  is  fonned  instead  of  flowers  and  seeds.  In  all 
respects  its  cultui-e  is  the  same  as  the  Potato  Onion,  only  that,  as  the 
bulbs  are  smaller,  they  can  be  planted  closer. 


SHALLOTS, 

a  vegetable  nearly  allied  to  the  Potato  Onion,  only  that  it  never 
forms  an  individual  bulb,  but  always  grows  in  clusters,  is  jilauted  in 
the   fall,  same    distance    apart   as   tl:e  Potato  Onion,   and  stai'ts  to 


Y.uiiETiES  OF  Onions.  347 

grow  ou  the  first  opening   of   spring,  so  that  the  crop  is  usuaUy 
mai-keted  in  ilay. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  ONIONS. 

We  here  give  a  short  description  and  illustration  of  the  leading 
varieties  of  onions.  The  seeds  of  onions  have  heretofore  been  raised 
mainly  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  Ehode  Island  and  Michigan, 
but  of  late  years,  large  quantities  have  been  raised  in  California.  A 
prejudice  against  that  raised  in  California  originated  in  consequence 
of  the  first  lots  raised  there  being  from  inferior  stocks,  but  latter  ex- 
perience has  shown  us  beyond  question,  that,  when  the  quality  of  the 
stock  from  which  the  seed  was  raised  has  been  the  same  as  used  in 
the  Eastern  States,  the  crop  has  been  in  aU  respects  equal.  In 
our  "trial  gi'ounds,"  where  upwards  of  fifty  stocks  of  onions  are 
tested  annually,  we  find  that  the  California  raised  seed  is  in  no  way 
inferior  to  that  raised  in  Connecticut  or  Massachusetts.  Onion  seed 
loses  its  germinating  power  sooner  than  almost  anj'  other  seed,  and, 
unless  the  sample  is  very  fine  indeed,  it  is  of  little  use  the  second 
year.  This  is  the  reason  for  the  great  disparitj'  in  the  price  of  seeds, 
for  as  the  onion  seed  crop  is  a  very  uncertain  one,  and  from  its 
germinating  qualities  being  limited  so  that  no  stock  can  be  held  over, 
the  price  in  different  seasons  fluctuates  from  $1  to  $.5  per  pound. 
First  Early.     Extr.4.  Early   Fl-^t  Ked,  a  thin,   and  a  good  keeper, 

rather  light  colored  onion,  but  earUest  of  all. 
Laege  Red  "Wethersfiexd.     One  of  the  favorite  sorts  for  general  croj), 

and  a  good  keeper  and  jielder. 
Yellow  Globe  Danvers.     A  half  globe  shaped  stock,  one  of  the  best 

yielders  and  a  splendid  keeper. 
Early  Eed  Globe.     One   of  the  eai'liest  of  Globe  varieties,  smaller 

than  the  large  Red  Globe. 
Ijahge  Red  Globe.     Later   and  larger  than   above,   but   a  favorite 

market  sort,  and  a  perfect  globe  shape. 
SouTHPORT  Large  White  Globe.     One  of  the  best,  and  a  favorite  sort 

in  New  York  rnarkets,  always  bringing  the  highest  price. 
SouTHPORT  Large  Yellow  Globe.      Similar  to  the  white  globe,  except 

in  color,  and  a  good  keeper. 
White  Portugal,  or  Silver  Skin.     One  of  the  leading  sorts  of  white  flat 

onion,  a  most  excellent  keejier  and  good  yielder. 
Yellow  Dutch.     A  flat  yeUow  onion,  good  j-ielder,  but  not  so  desir- 
able as  the  other  yellow  sorts  on  account  of  its  color  and  shape. 

This  and  the  Flaf  Yellow  Danvers  are  very  similar.     One  of  the 

heaviest  croppers. 


348 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


Italian  varieties  ■well  adapted  for  growing  in  tbe  Southern  States: 
Queen.     The  earliest  of  all  onions,  small,  flat,  white  and  mild  flavor. 
Neapolitan  JLarzajole,  an  early  white  flat  onion,  fine  flavor. 
XiAiiGE  "White  It.uli.\n   Tripoli,    grows   to  a  large   size,   later  than 

either  the  preceding. 
XiAitGE  Ked  Itauas  Tripoli,  simDar  to  the  preceding,  except  in  color. 
Olant  Eocc.a.     a  verv  large  gi-owing  globe  shaped  variety  of  a  reddish 

brown  color;  flavor  mild  and  sweet. 


This  is  a  crop  used  almost  exclusively  in  winter,  and  is  probably 
not  often  wanted  for  the  market  which  the  average  fanner  could 


LONG  SMOOTH  l-All* 


supply.  It  is,  however,  tbe  most  valuable  of  all  roots  for  farm  feeding, 
and  can  always  be  turned  to  good  use  in  this  way,  if  in  no  other. 
Moreover,  it  is  verj-  convenient,  as  it  may  be  left  iu  the  ground  all 


Parsley — Peas. 


349 


winter  -without  injury,  and  used  in  the  siwing.  Still,  it  is  a  vegetable 
well  worth  growing  for  private  use.  Its  cultui'e  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  caiTots.  It  is  sown  as  early  in  the  sj)ring  as  the  weather 
will  permit,  in  di'iUs  fifteen  inches  apai't,  if  the  culture  is  by  hand,  or 
two  feet,  if  by  horse  cultivator.  The  seeds  aie  covered  half  an  incli 
deep,  being  cai'eful  to  firm  them  in  the  soil  with  the  foot,  as  they  are 
very  Ught.  When  well  uj)  thin  out  to  five  or  six  inches  ajsai-t  in  the 
rows.  Unlike  carrots  they  ai-e  improved  by  frost,  and  it  is  usual  to 
dig  up  in  the  fall  only  what  are  wanted  for  vidnter  use,  leaving  the 
rest  in  the  ground  until  sjjring,  to  be  dug  up  as  required. 


is  only  used  for  soups,  and  but  very  little  of  it  is  wanted,  unless  for 
this  purpose  or  for  gai-nishing  or  flavoring.  As  the  seeds  germinate 
very  slowly,  three  or  foiu-  weeks  will  be  required  for  it  to  make  its. 


DOUBLE  CUKLED  PAESLEY. 


appeai'ance.  It  should  be  sown  early  in  the  spring,  thickly,  in  rows 
one  foot  apart  and  half  an  inch  deep.  For  winter  use  it  is  kejit  in 
boxes  in  a  hght  cellar  or  sittiug-room.  The  variety  most  in  use  is 
that  known  as  Double  Curled. 


For  table  use  this  is  really  more  a  crop  for  the  farm  than  the  garden, 
as  they  require  more  sjjace  than  market  gardeners  near  large  cities, 
paying  high  prices  for  hind,  can  well  afford  to  spare.  Consequently, 
peas  are  growu  mainly  by  farmers,  and  where  j)ickers  can  be  obtained 


350 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


at  the  proper  season,  they  are  often  found  to  be  a  very  paying  crop. 
For  early  varieties  sow  in  drills  three  inches  deep  and  tlu'ee  feet  axiart, 
requiring  two  and  one-half  bushels  to  the  acre.     The  land  need  not 


be  very  rich  for  peas,  and  they  will  follow  verj-  well  after  com  or 
potatoes,  if  the  ground  is  in  good  heart,  mthout  nian\u-e.  The 
variety  most  favored  for  market  piu-jioses  is  that  sent  out  in  1883, 
known  as  "  Hendei-son's  First  of  All,"  which  matiu-es  about  five  or 


Varieties  of  Peas 


351 


six  days  earlier  than  any  other  sort  we  have  ever  tried.  Daniel 
O'Roirrke  is  another  popular  variety,  very  similar  to  the  above,  but, 
as  we  have  said,  five  or  sis  days  later.  A  recent  inti'oduction  is  the 
sort  known  as  American  Wonder.     It  is  very  dwarf,  and  can  be  grown 


in  rows  about  two  feet  apart,  ^Jroducing  a  heavy  crop  of  the  very 
finest  quality.  The  profit  of  the  25ea  crop  is  very  variable.  Occa- 
sionally, when  the  market  is  glutted,  they  will  hardly  pay  the  price  of 
picking.     Again,  when  the  crop  comes  in  at  the  proper  season,  they 


352  How  THK  Fah.m  Pays. 

will  often  pay  a  profit  of  $150  to  $200  jjer  acre.  In  sowing  peaa  the 
seed  should  be  dropped  in  the  drill  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch 
ajjaii. 

POTATO. 

The  cultui'e  of  the  potato  as  a  gai'den  crof)  in  no  way  differs  from 
that  of  the  field — which  see  in  chajiter  under  that  head.  The  only 
necessity  for  refeniug  to  it  here  is  the  advice  we  can  give  in  using 
the  earher  kinds,  when  used  as  an  early  mai-ket  vegetable.  For  this 
jimi^ose  there  ai'e  no  varieties  better  than  those  known  as  the  Eai'ly 
Kose  and  Beauty  of  Hebron,  which,  when  grown  in  wanu  situations 
imder  favorable  culture,  will  often  prove  a  profitable  croi>  for  eai-ly 
mai'ket.  There  are,  however,  so  many  new  varieties  being  introduced 
every  year,  that  it  is  quite  probable  these  standard  kinds  niaj'  soon 
be  superseded.  These  new  kinds  should  be  tested  in  a  small  way  as 
they  apj)ear. 


Like  asparagus,  this  is  a  vegetable  that  does  not  requu-e  to  be 
renewed  each  season,  having  a  perennial  root,  and,  when  once  well 
set  in  the  ground  will  remain  without  replanting  for  at  least  eight  or 
ten  years;  but  it  is  better  to  take  up  the  roots  when  fiye  years  old. 


and  divide  them  and  moke  a  new  jilantation.  The  quickest  way, 
perhaps,  if  a  small  quantity  is  wanted,  is  to  procm-e  the  roots,  which 
should  be  set  out  in  hills  about  three  feet  ajiart  each  way.  It  is  one  of 
the  grossest  feedingplants  of  all  vegetables,  and  requires,  for  perfection. 


Radishes.  353 

a  large  amount  of  maniire  to  be  incorporated  eveiy  rear  with  the  soil 
in  each  hilL  K  a  large  quantity  is  •wanted  it  is  best  sown  in  diills 
three  feet  apart  and  thinned  out  to  about  one  foot  apart  in  the  rows 
when  a  few  inches  high.  When  the  plants  of  rhubarb  become  large 
they  can  be  taken  up  in  the  fall,  placed  in  the  cellar,  or  in  some  place 
safe  from  frost.  The  roots  are  simply  taken  up  with  the  soil  adhering 
to  them,  and  packed  closely  together  in  a  comer  of  the  cellar.  As  a 
matter  of  coiu'se  this  forcing  process  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the 
root,  which  is  of  no  further  use.  The  shoots  wiU  gi'ow  in  the 
dai'k  just  as  well  as  in  the  light,  and  in  this  condition  are  veiy  tender. 
A  couple  of  dozen  roots  of  rhubarb  will  be  sufficient  for  the  use  of  a 
moderate  sized  family  dming  the  entire  winter  months.  "WTien  grown 
in  this  blanched  condition  it  is  a  most  desu'able  article  for  table  use, 
coming,  as  it  does,  at  a  season  when  fresh  fi'uit  is  scarce  and  a  change 
is  agreeable. 


This  vegetable  does  best  when  sown  in  a  Ught,  sandy  loam.  Heavy 
or  clayey  soils  not  only  delay  matui-ity,  but  produce  crops  much 
inferior  both  in  appeai'ance  and  flavor.     For  a  successive  supply  sow 


WHITE  OLIVE-SHAPED  KADISH. 

from  the  middle  of  April  until  the  middle  of  September  at  intervals 
of  two  or  three  weeks.  They  can  either  be  sown  broadcast  or  in 
drills.  "WTien  sown  broadcast  about  twenty  x^ounds  of  seed  is  required 
per  acre ;  if  in  diills,  eight  to  ten  pounds.     The  vaiieties  mostly  grown 


354 


How  THE  Farm  Pats. 


are  tlie  Scai'let  Turnip,  and  the  Long  Scarlet  Short  Top,  the  one 
being  round  and  the  other  long.  It  is  a  profitable  crop,  and  one 
•which  the  market  gardeners  always  depend  on  to  get  their  first  money 


lOSO  SCABLET  BADISB. 


from,  after  the  dull  winter  months,  as  it  matures  usually  in  this  lati- 
tude from  the  middle  to  the  end  of  Jklay,  and  generally  yields  a  profit 
over  all  expenses  of  $100  per  acre. 


This  is  one  of  the  easiest  managed  crops,  although  it  is  one  of  the 
most  important  in  oiu'  market  gai'dens.  The  main  crop  is  sown  in  drills 
just  as  we  sow  beets  or  radishes,  the  drills  being  one  foot  ajjsu-t.  ITie 
first  croj>— that  intended  to  stand  tlu-ough  the  winter  and  to  be  used 
the  succeeding  spring — is  sovm  in  September,  and  if  it  keeps  well  dui- 
ing  the  winter  it  rarely  fails  to  become  very  profitable.  In  exposed 
places  it  is  usually  covered  with  straw  or  marsh  hay  dvuing  the  winter, 
which  prevents  it  from  being  cut  by  the  frost,  but  in  sheltered  fields  there 
is  no  necessity  for  its  being  covered.  This  covering  is  only  necessary 
in  the  latitude  of  New  York.     South  of  Philadelphia  it  is  rarely  done. 


Squash.  355 

It  is  also  grown  in  the  summer  as  an  early  crop,  sown  the  same  way 
as  is  done  in  the  fall,  about  the  middle  of  April,  when  it  comes  in 
before  cabbages  or  other  greens,  about  the  end  of  May.  The  spiing 
crop  is  not  usually  so  profitable  as  the  winter  crop,  but  there  is  hardly 
anything  that  requires  so  little  labor  and  produces  so  much  weight. 
The  kinds  now  in  use  are  the  Savoy  Leaved  and  the  Round  Leaved. 
The  quantity  of  seed  used  is  fi-om  ten  to  twelve  pounds  per  acre. 
SiDinach  is  now  grown  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  other  Southern  localities, 
for  Northern  markets,  bringing  about  $300  or  $400  per  acre,  or  twice 
as  much  as  that  grown  in  the  North. 


SQUASH. 

Squashes  are  of  luxui'iaut  and  vigorous  growth,  and,  although  they 
will  grow  rapidly  iu  almost  any  soil,  they  wiU  repay  generous  treat- 
ment. Like  aU  vegetables  of  this  class,  it  is  useless  to  sow  until 
the  weather  has  become   settled  and  warm,  say  the  15th  of  May. 


— -"ffjiv^"'^ 


Light  soils  are  best  suited  to  its  growth,  and  it  is  most  economical  of 
manui-e  to  prepare  the  hills  for  the  seed  in  the  ordinary  manner  by 
incoi-porating  two  or  three  shovelfuls  with  the  soil  in  each  hill.  For 
what  is  known  as  the  Bush  varieties,  a  distance  of  thi-ee  or  four  feet 
each  way  is  required,  and  for  running  sorts  from  six  to  eight  feet. 
Eight  to  ten  seeds  should  be  sown  in  each  hill,  thinning  out,  after 
they  have  attained  their  rough  leaves,  to  three  or  four  of  the  strongest 
plants.  'Wlaen  only  a  limited  quantity  of  this  vegetable  is  wanted,  as 
wiQ  be  understood  by  most  farmers,  they  can  be  gi-own  in  the  hUls 
of  com,  where  they  will  mature  without  interfering  with  the  latter 
crop,  although  I  myself  do  not  like  this  system  of  feeding  two  crops 
on  the  land  at  the  same  time,  believing  that  it  will  always  be  better 
to  allot  the  land  for  each  particular  crop,  as  I  think  the  saving  of 
labor  and  better  jdeld  more  than  compensate  for  the  extra  land  and 
manure.     The  favorite  kinds  for  summer  use,  of  the  bush  varieties. 


356  How  THE  Faem  Pays. 

are  White  Bush  Scalloj)  and  Yellow  Eiisli  Scallop;  for  winter  use  ihe 
Hubbard  and  Yokoliaiua  are  preferred.  A  special  point  in  the 
management  of  this  crop  is  the  pinching  in  of  the  main  vines  to  force 
out  a  gi-Qwth  of  lateral  branches.     These  bear  the  fruits,  as  in  all  of 


HUBBABD  SQUASH. 


the  gourd  tribe  of  plants,  to  which  this,  as  well  as  melons  and  cucum- 
bers, belongs.  When  the  main  vine  has  reached  a  length  of  three 
feet  the  terminal  bud  is  pinched  ofif  with  the  finger  and  thumb.  The 
same  kind  of  pruning  is  done  with  the  laterals  to  prevent  the  ■sines 
spreading  too  far  and  to  encourage  the  growth  of  fruit. 


Tlie  tomato  is  now  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  garden  vege- 
tables, tens  of  thousands  of  acres  of  it  being  grown  for  canning  pur- 
poses. '\A"hen  the  plants  are  to  be  raised,  the  seed  should  be  sown  in 
Mai'ch  in  a  hot-bed  or  greenhouse.  Or  they  may  be  sown  in  a  bos 
and  kef)t  inside  the  -window  of  a  room  where  the  night  temperature 
is  not  less  than  sixty-five  degrees.  They  should  be  sown  in  drills  five 
inches  apart,  and  half  an  inch  deep.  ^Mien  the  plants  are  two  or 
three  inches  high,  they  should  be  set  out  in  the  same  temperature,  or 
planted  in  small  flower  pots,  allowing  one  plant  to  each  pot,  or  in 
soap  or  similar  boxes,  cut  to  a  de^sth  of  tlu'ee  inches,  and  planted  in 
them  at  three  inches  apsu^;  each  way.  They  ai-e  sometimes  trans- 
planted a  second  time  into  larger  pots  or  into  hot-beds,  at  five 
inches  apart,  bj'  which  process  the  plants  are  rendered  more  sturdy 
and  branching.     By  the  middle  of  May  in  this  latitude  the  plants 


Culture  and  Varieties  of  the  Tomato. 


357 


may  be  set  in  the  open  ground.  Thej  are  planted  for  early  crops  on 
light  sandy  ground  in  hills  three  feet  aj)art.  A  good  shovelful  of 
rotten  manui'e  is  mixed  in  each  hill.  On  heavy  soils,  ■which  are  not 
suited  for  an  early  crop,  they  should  be  planted  four  feet  apart.     It  is 


not  absolutely  essential  tuat  manui'e  should  be  used  for  a  tomato  crop. 
If  the  ground  is  in  good  heart  following  a  com  crop,  potato  or  root 
crojj  that  has  been  -well  manured,  it  'wiU  usually  be  sufficient  to  carry 
them  through.     In  fact,  if  the  ground  is  too  rich  they  will  grow  to 


PERFECTION  TOMATO. 


leaves  and  branches  instead  of  fruit.  It  is  only  when  wanted  for  a 
very  earlj'  crop,  ia  a  Ught  sandy  soU  in  some  sheltered  place,  that  the 
recommendation,  to  use  manm-o  in  the  hUls,  applies.  When  it  is  not 
convenient  for  the  grower  to  raise  his  ov.-n  plants  they  can  be  had  at 


358  How  THE  Farm  Pats. 

very  low  rates  from  a  dealer,  as  the  tomato  plant  is  probably  more 
easily  raised  than  any  other  vegetable  plant  ■we  grow.  The  most 
popular  kinds  for  market  use  are  the  Perfection  and  the  Acme.  The 
Trophy  was  long  a  favorite,  but  is  not  now  considered  so  desirable 
as  some  of  its  newer  competitors.  Tomatoes  for  canning  puqwses 
are  usually  grown  in  immense  quantities,  and  by  farmers  rather  than 
gardeners.  The  profit  over  all  expenses  is  generally  not  less  than 
$50  per  acre,  and  occasionally  when  the  crop  is  heavy  as  high  as 
$100  per  acre.  "When  grown  for  table  use,  in  particulai-ly  favored 
positions  as  to  sod  and  shelter,  and  sold  in  the  markets,  a  profit  of 
$300  per  acre  is  not  unusual. 

TURNIP. 

Although  this  vegetable  has  been  treated  in  the  chapter  of  this 
work  devoted  to  "  root  crops,"  yet  its  culture  for  a  table  vegetable  is 
somewhat  different,  and  it  may  be  well  to  allude  to  it  here.  Turnips 
do  best  on  highly  enriched  and  Hght  sandy  or  gravelly  soils.     Com- 


STIt.U*  LEAF 


menee  sowing  the  earher  varieties  iu  Apiil,  in  diiUs  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  inches  apart,  if  hand  cultivation  is  used;  if  by  horse  cultivator, 
two  feet  apart  Thin  out  as  soon  as  the  islauts  are  large  enough  to 
handle  to  sis  or  nine  inches  in  the  rows.  For  a  succession  of  crops 
sow  at  intervals  of  a  fortnight  until  the  last  week  iu  July,  from  which 
time  until  the  end  of  August  sowings  may  be  made  of  the  fall  or  main 
crops.  Turnips  may  be  presened  until  spiing  by  cutting  oti"  the  tops 
at  one  inch  from  the  bulb,  and  jjlacing  the  roots  in  a  cellar  or  pit 
during  the  winter.  For  further  partieulai-s  see  chapter  entitled 
"  Root  Crops  for  Farm  Stock.  '  The  quantity  of  seed  required,  which 
should  be  put  in  by  the  di'ill,  is  about  one  pound  to  the  acre.  The 
favorite  kinds  for  early  table  use  are  the  "UTiite  Egg  and  Pm-ple  Top 


Turnips. 


359 


Strap  Leaf;  for  winter  use,  the  Yello-w  Aberdeen  and  Purple  Top 
Ruta  Baga.  TMierever  the  soil  is  suitable  for  early  tm-nips,  and  •wUl 
produce  them  in  a  clean  condition,  without  being  affected  with  the 
maggot,  they  ai-e  a  safer  and  more  profitable  crop  to  grow  than  beets; 
but  it  is  only  in  special  localities  where  this  cleanliness  of  crop  can  be 
had,  and  hence  the  profit  to  the  fortunate  owner  of  such  soils.     They 


■WHITE   EGG   TUHNIP, 


PURPLE  TOP  RUTA  BAGA. 


are  largely  grown  in  the  yieinity  of  New  York  on  Long  Island,  in 
locations  near  the  sea,  where  they  seem  to  be  exempt  from  the 
maggot  and  wire  worm.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  them  to  pay  a 
profit  of  $.500  -pev  acre  when  these  special  conditions  can  be  obtained. 
The  turnij)  fly  or  flea,  which  damages  and  sometimes  destroys  the 
first  sowings,  may  be  driven  off  by  dusting  fine  lime  or  wood  ashes 
along  the  rows  as  soon  as  the  young  jjlants  apjiear  aboye  the  ground. 


QUANTITIES  OF  SEED. 

The   following   table   will   give   the   quantity  of   vegetable   seeds 
requii-ed  to  sow  an  acre: 

Beans,  dwarf,  in  drills 2  bushels. 

Beans,  pole,  in  drills 10  to  12  quarts. 

Beets,  in  drills 5  to  6  pounds. 


360  How  THK  Farm  Pays. 


QUANTITIES  OF  SVIED.— Continued. 

Cabbage,  iu  beds  to  transplant J  pound. 

Carrot,  in  drills i!  to  4  ]5ound8. 

Corn,  in  hills 8  to  10  quarts. 

Corn  (for  soiling) 3  buslicls. 

Cucumber,  iu  hills 2  to  3  pounds. 

Melon,  musk,  in  liills 2  to  3  pounds. 

Melon,  water,  in  hills 4  to  5  pounds. 

Onion,  in  drills .5  to  6  pounds. 

Onion  (sets),  in  drills G  to  12  bushels. 

Parsuip,  in  drills 5  to  6  pounds. 

Peas,  in  drills 2  to  3  bushels. 

Kadish,  in  diills 9  to  10  pounds. 

Spinach,  in  drills 10  to  12  pounds 

Squash  (bush  varieties),  in  hills o  to  G  pounds. 

Squash  (running  varieties),  in  hills 3  to  4  pounds. 

Tomato  (to  transplant) ^  pound. 

Turnip,  in  drills 1    to  2  pounds. 

Where  thills  are  referred  to  the  seed  should  be  put  in  with  seed 
th-ill. 

Table  showing  the  quantities  of  seeds  required  for  a  given  number 
of  plants,  number  of  hiUs  or  length  of  (b-ill: 

Asparagus,  1  ounce GO  feet  of  diiU. 

Beet,  1  ounce 50  feet  of  thill. 

Beans,  dwiU-f,  1  quart 100  feet  of  chill. 

Beans,  ])ole,  1  tjuaii. 150  liills. 

Carrot,  1  ounce    150  feet  of  drill. 

Cucumber,  1  ounce 50  hills. 

Corn,  1  quart 200  hills. 

Melon,  water,  1  ounce 30  liills. 

Melon,  musk,  1  ounce (iO  hills. 

Onion,  1  ounce 100  feet  of  drill. 

Onion,  sets,  1  quai-t 40  feet  of  drill. 

Parsley,  1  ounce 150  feet  of  drill. 

Parsnip,  1  ounce 200  feet  ot  <lrill. 

Peas,  1  (luart 75  feet  of  drill. 

Radish,  1  ounce 100  ftet  of  drill. 

Spinach,  1  ounce 100  feet  of  drill. 

Squash,  early,  1  ounce   50  hills. 

Turnip,  1  ounce 150  feet  of  drill 

Cabbage,  1  ounce 1,5(>0  plants. 

Cauliflower,  1  ounce 1,000  plants. 

Celerv,  1  ounce 2,000  plants. 

Egg  Plant,  1  ounce 1.000  plants. 

Lettuce,  1  ounce 3,000  jjlants. 

Tomato,  1  ounce 1,500  ijlauts. 


The  Cultctre  of  Sjiall  Fkuits.  361 


CHAPTER  XII. 


PRINCIPAL  SMALL  FRUIT   CROPS. 

As  with  vegetables,  so  there  are  many  fruits  that  can  be  cultivated 
■with  but  little  trouble  on  the  fai-m,  particulai-ly  the  kinds  known  as 
small  fruits,  which  consist  of  strawberries,  blackbenies,  raspberries, 
currants  and  grapes.  The  larger  fi'uits,  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
cherries,  plums  and  quinces,  may  also  be  grown  in  limited  quantities 
■with  advantage. 

STRAWBERRIES. 

This  fruit  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all,  as  there  is  hardly  a 
to'wn  where  this  fruit  cannot  be  sold  at  remunerative  rates.  For,  as 
is  the  case  ■with  fresh  vegetables,  tbe  want  of  fresh  fruits  at  our 
summer  hotels  and  boarding  houses  is  rarely  stifficiently  sujopHed. 
As  strawberries  occupy  the  most  important  place,  we  •wiUhere  describe 
their  culture  at  greater  length  than  wiR  be  necessary  with  most  of 
the  others,  and  for  that  purpose  I  will  insert  in  full  my  essay  on  that 
subject  -wiitten  in  1882,  which  I  am  happy  to  know  has  already  been 
the  means  of  causing  hundreds  to  grow  this  delicious  fruit  with  suc- 
cess never  before  attained. 


STRAWBERRY  CULTURE. 

Strawberries  will  grow  on  almost  anj'  soU,  but  it  is  all-important 
that  it  be  well  drained,  either  naturaUj-  or  artificially;  in  fact,  this  is 
true  for  the  well-being  of  nearly  all  j^lants,  as  few  plants  do  well  on 
soils  ■where  the  water  does  not  freely  jiass  off. 

Thorough  culture  requires  that  the  soil  should  be  first  dug  or 
plowed,  then  spread  over  with  at  least  three  inches  of  thoroughly 
rotted  stable  manure,  whicb  should  be  dug  or  plowed  under,  so  far  as 
practicable,  to  mix  it  ■with  the  soU.  If  stable  manure  cannot  be  had, 
artificial  manure,  such  as  ground  bone  dust,  etc. ,  should  be  sown  on 
the  dug  or  jDlowed  gi-ound,  thick  enough  to  nearly  cover  it,  then  har- 
rowed or  chopped  in  -with  a  fork,  so  that  it  is  well  mixed  with  the  soil 


362  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

to  at  least  six  inches  in  deptli.  This,  then,  is  the  prehminarv  work 
before  planting,  to  ensure  a  crop  the  next  season  after  planting — in 
nine  or  ten  months.  The  plants  must  be  such  as  are  layered  in  jjots, 
and  the  sooner  they  are  planted  out  after  the  loth  of  July  the  better, 
although,  if  not  then  convenient,  they  will  produce  a  crop  the  next 
season  even  if  planted  as  late  as  the  middle  of  September;  but  the 
sooner  they  are  planted,  the  larger  wall  be  the  crop.  They  may  be 
set  from  po<  lai/ers  either  in  beds  of  four  rows  each,  fifteen  indies 
apart,  and  fifteen  inches  between  the  plivnts,  leaving  two  feet  between 
the  beds  for  pathway;  or  be  set  out  in  rows  two  feet  apai-t,  the  plants 
in  the  rows  fifteen  inches  apart;  and  if  the  plants  are  proi)erly  set 
out  (care  being  taken  to  firm  the  soil  ai-ound  the  plant,  which  is  best 
done  by  pressing  the  soil  against  each  plant  with  the  foot),  not  one 
plant  in  a  thousand  of  strawbeny  plants  that  have  been  gi-own  in 
pots  will  fail  to  grow.  For  the  first  thi-ee  or  four  weeks  after  planting 
nothing  need  be  done  except  to  hoe  the  beds,  so  that  all  weeds  are 
kept  down.  Be  careful  to  do  this  once  in  every  ten  days;  for  if  the 
weeds  once  get  a  start  it  will  treble  the  labor  of  keeping  the  groimd 
clean.  In  about  a  month  after  planting  they  wtH  begin  to  throw  out 
i-unners,  all  of  which  must  be  pinched  or  cut  off  as  they  appear,  so  that 
by  the  end  of  the  growing  season  (1st  of  November)  each  jjlant  will 
have  foiTued  a  complete  bush  one  foot  or  more  in  diameter,  having 
the  uceesS!U-y  matured  "  crowns  "  for  next  June's  fiiiit.  By  the  middle 
of  December  the  entire  beds  of  strawberry  plants  should  be  covered 
up  with  salt  meadow  hay  (straw,  leaves  or  anything  similai-  will  do  as 
weU)  to  the  depth  of  two  or  tlu-ee  inches,  entirely  coveiing  up  the 
plants  and  soil,  so  that  notliiug  is  seen  but  the  hay.  By  April  the 
plants  so  protected  will  show  indications  of  growth,  when  the  hay 
aroimd  each  plant  is  jiushed  a  httle  a.side  to  assist  it  in  getting 
through  the  covering,  so  that  by  May  the  fully  developed  plant  shows 
on  the  clean  smiaee  of  the  hay.  This  "  mulching,''  as  it  is  called,  is 
indispensable  to  the  best  culture,  as  it  protects  the  plants  from  cold 
in  winter,  keeps  the  fruit  clean,  keeps  the  roots  cool  by  shading  them 
fi-om  the  hot  sun  in  June,  and  at  the  same  time  saves  nearly  all 
further  labor  after  being  once  put  on,  as  few  weeds  can  jJush  through 
it.  By  this  method  we  jjrefer  to  plant  new  beds  every  year,  though, 
if  desired,  the  beds  once  planted  may  be  fruited  for  two  or  three 
years,  as  by  the  old  jjlans;  but  the  fi-uit  the  first  season  will  always 
be  the  largest  in  size,  if  not  greatest  in  number.  Another  advantage 
of  this  system  is  that,  where  space  is  limited,  tliere  is  quite  time 
enough  to  get  a  crop  of  potatoes,  jjease,  beans,  lettuce,  radislies,  or, 
in  fact,  any  summer  crop,  off  the  ground  first  before  planting  the 
strawberries,  thus  taking  two  crops  from  the  ground  in  one  yeai-,  if 


Culture  of  Steawbekries.  363 

desired,  and  there  is  also  plenty  of  time  to  crop  the  ground  with 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  or  other  faU  crop,  after  the  crop  of 
strawberries  has  been  gathered.  The  plan  of  getting  the  pot  layers 
of  strawbenies  is  very  simple.  Just  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  gathered, 
if  the  beds  ai-e  well  forked  up  between  the  rows,  the  runners  or 
young  plants  wiU  begin  to  grow,  and  in  two  weeks  will  be  fit  to  layer 
in  pots.  The  pots,  which  should  be  fi-om  two  to  thi'ee  inches  in 
diameter,  are  fiUedwith  the  soil  in  which  the  strawberries  are  grooving, 
and  "  plunged "  or  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  siu-face;  the  strawberry 
layer  is  then  laid  on  the  pot,  being  held  in  place  with  a  small  stone. 
The  stone  not  onlj-  ser\-es  to  keep  the  plant  in  its  place,  so  that  its 
roots  will  strike  into  the  pot,  but  it  also  serves  to  mark  where  each 
pot  is;  for,  being  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  surface,  rains  wash  the  soil 
around  the  j)ots,  so  that  they  could  not  well  be  seen  unless  marked 
by  the  stone.  In  ten  or  twelve  days  after  the  strawberry  layers  have 
been  put  down  the  pots  will  be  fiUed  with  roots.  They  are  then  cut 
from  the  parent  plant,  placed  closely  together,  and  shaded  and 
watered  for  a  few  days  before  being  planted  out.  Some  plant  them 
out  at  once  when  taken  uj),  but,  unless  the  weather  is  suitable, 
some  loss  may  occur  by  this  method ;  by  the  other  plan,  however,  of 
hai'dening  them  for  a  few  days,  not  one  in  a  thousand  will  fail. 
Strawberries  for  field  culture  are  usually  planted  from  the  ordinary 
laj'ers,  either  in  August  and  September  in  the  fall,  or  in  March, 
April  or  May  in  the  spring.  They  are  usually  planted  in  rows,  two 
to  thi'ee  feet  apart,  and  nine  to  twelve  inches  between  the  plants. 
In  planting,  every  plant  should  be  well  firmed,  or  great  loss  is  almost 
certain  to  ensue,  as  the  strawberry  is  a  plant  always  difiicidt  to 
transplant.  They  are  usually  worked  by  a  horse  cultivator,  and  gen- 
erally two  or  three  crops  are  taken  before  the  beds  ai-e  plowed  under; 
but  the  first  crop  given  (which  is  in  the  second  year  after  planting) 
is  always  the  best.  The  .same  care  must  be  taken  in  planting  by  pot 
layers;  the  groimd  must  be  kejot  clear  of  weeds,  and  the  runners 
pinched  or  cut  off  to  make  fraitiug  crowns.  By  the  usual  field 
method  of  culture,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  loss  of  one  season  in 
about  three;  for  in  the  yeai'  of  planting  no  fniit,  of  coui'se,  is  produced, 
and  for  this  reason  we  incline  to  the  behef  that,  if  a  portion  were  set 
aside  to  ju'oduce  early  jjlants,  so  that  pot  laj'ers  could  be  set  out  by 
the  15th  of  July,  a  fiiU  crop  of  the  finest  fruit  could  be  had  every 
season,  and  with  less  cost,  we  think;  for  the  only  labor  after  planting 
is  to  keep  the  ground  clean  and  pinch  off  the  runners,  from  July  to 
October,  with  the  certainty  of  getting  a  full  crop  next  June,  or  in  less 
than  a  j'ear  fi'om  the  time  of  planting,  while  by  planting  by  ordinary 
layers,  if  planted  in  August,  we  have  three  months  of  fall  culture,  and 


364 


How  THE  Fakm  Pavs. 


six  or  seven  months  of  the  next  summer's  culture,  before  a  crop  is 
produced.  Again,  if  the  crop  is  continued  to  fruit  the  second  or 
third  yeai',  every  one  who  has  hud  experience  with  the  nature  of  the 
plant,  knows  that  the  labor  of  keeping  the  plants  free  from  weeds 
is  enormous;  while  by  the  pot  layeiing  method  of  taking  a  fresh  crop 
each  year,  all  such  labor  is  disjiensed  with. 

Although  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  list  of  kinds  of  strawberries  that 
will  do  well  imder  aU  conditions,  yet,  taking  the  suburbs  of  New 
York  as  a  standard  (which,  with  its  great  vaiiety  of  soil,  is  likely  to 
"be  as  good  as  any  other),  we  find  that  the  best  six  kinds,  having  the 
greatest  combination  of  good  qualities,  that  we  can  select  from  a 
coEection  of  fifty  leatling  sorts,  are  the  following,  which  we  name  in 
the  order  of  their  excellence: 

The  Hjesdekson. — This  new  strawberry  originated  with  Mr.  George 
Seymoiu',  South  Nonvalk,  Conn. ,  who  named  it  in  our  honor.  It  is 
doubtful  if  there  is  another  strawbeny  in  cultivation  having  such  a 
combination  of  good  qualities  as  the  "  Hendei'son."     The  fruit  is  of 


the  largest  size,  rich,  glossy  crimson  in  color,  looking  as  if 
Tarnished,  early  and  exceeding!}'  productive,  but  its  excelling 
merit  is  its  exquisite  flavor  and  aroma.  WTiether  for  family  or 
market  use  the  ' '  Hendei-son  "  is  certain  to  become  a  standard  sort, 
and  its  strong  and  healthy  gi-owth  will  adapt  it  to  almost  every  soiL 
It  is  a  perfect  flowered  vaiiety,  and,  therefore,  will  never  fail  to 


The  Best  Varieties  of  Stkawberries.  365 

set  its  fruit.  By  the  pot  layer  system  this  vigorous  and  produc- 
tive strawberry,  planted  in  August,  is  certain  to  give  a  full  crop  of 
fiTiit  in  June  of  the  next  year,  or  in  ten  months  from  time  of 
planting.     It  is  sold  for  the  first  time  this  year — 1884. 

Jersey  Queen. — This  variety  was  sold  for  the  first  time  in  the 
fall  of  1881',  and  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the  very  best  straw- 
berries so  far  introduced.  The  size  is  immense,  often  measuring 
six  inches  in  cu'cumference.  Shape,  roundish  conical;  color,  a  beauti- 
ful scarlet  crimson;  perfectly  solid,  and  of  excellent  flavor.     It  is  an 


enormous  bearer,  many  plants  averaging  a  quart  of  first  quality  fmit. 
It  is  one  of  the  latest  strawbeiTies,  the  crop  in  this  vicinity  being  in 
perfection  about  the  2.5th  of  June,  while  the  average  crop  of  straw- 
berries is  at  its  best  by  the  15th  of  June  in  the  locality  of  New  York. 

Bldwell. — One  of  the  earhest,  abundantly  productive,  medium 
size,  excellent  flavoi",  and  hght  scarlet  in  color.  Plants  set  out 
from  pot  layers  on  August  5th,  1880,  had  fniit  rijje  June  5th,  1881, 
ten  months  from  date  of  planting.  The  plants  averaged  one  quart  of 
fruit  each. 

Sharpless. — "With  the  exception  of  Jersey  Queen,  the  largest  and 
one  of  the  heaviest  beiTies  of  this  collection.  It  is  of  fine  flavor,  a 
good  bearer,  and  has  now  become  a  standard  soii. 

JucDNDA. — This  is  an  old,  well  known  sort,  possessing  so  many 
good  qualities,  that  we  place  it  as  one  of  the  best  six  in  preference 
to  scores  of  others  of  later  origin.  It  is  of  full  average  size,  wonder- 
fully productive,  of  great  beauty  of  color  and  form,  and  excellent 
flavor;  but  its  distinctive  value  is  in  its  ripening,  extending  from  the 
earhest  to  the  latest  of  the  crop,  the  first  berries  being  ripe  here  about 
June  4:th,  and  extending  unto  July  4th. 

Downing. — One  of  the  best  of  the  older  sorts.  It  combines  all  the 
best  qualities,  being  large,  early,  rich  in  color  and  flavor,  and  abun- 
dantly productive. 


366 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


Glossy  Cone. — Although  this  has  been  grown  by  the  raiser,  Mr. 
Durand,  for  several  jeai's,  it  was  issued  last  season  for  the  first  time. 
In  a  test  of  fifty  kinds  in  our  grounds,  we  fovind  it  the  earliest  of  all, 
and  very  prohfic,  of  good  size,  tine  flavor,  and  altogether  has  a  com- 
bination of  good  qualities  rarely  found  in  any  earhj  strawbeny.  Its 
only  fault  is,  that  it  is  riither  a  weak  grower,  and  requires  a  rich  and 
rather  heavy  soil  to  develop  its  best  qualities. 

Strawbei-ries  rarely  sell  at  less  than  an  average  of  $8  per  100  quarts, 
and  when  retailed  to  the  consumer,  average  one-thii-d  more.  As 
about  20,000  plants  are  gi-o-mi  on  an  acre,  and  an  average  crop  under 


BIDWEIX  KTRAWBEHBT. 


,rI.Ei>S  STKA^-BEItBY. 


good  culture  wiU  give  at  least  5,000  quaiis  per  acre,  the  crop,  when 
sold  even  at  lowest  rates,  is  a  very  profitable  [one.  But  it  is  a  crop 
that  must  be  promptly  attended  to  in  hoeing  and  weeding.  It  never 
can  be  made  profitable  under  sUpshod  culture,  for,  from  the 
nature  of  the  plant,  it  cannot  defend  itself  against  weeds,  and  if 
neglected  will  quicklj-  get  overwhelmed  and  destroyed.  Thousands 
of  acres  of  strawbemes  are  planted  annually,  wliich,  from  the  want  of 
l^rompt  work  at  the  proper  time,  are  allowed  to  be  destroyed  by 
weeds.  At  a  small  cost  in  labor  at  the  proper  time,  such  crops  might 
have  paid  a  clear  profit  of  $300  per  acre. 


BLACKBERRIES. 


Although  blackberries  are  found  in  a  wild  state  in  almost  all 
sections  of  the  country,  yet  the  varieties  are  so  much  inferior  to  the 
cultivated  kinds,  that  it  is  poor  economy  to  depend  on  them  for  a 


Blackberries. 


367 


supply,  no  matter  how  abundant  they  may  be.  Cultivated  black- 
berries comprise  varieties  which  are  not  only  double  the  size  of  the 
wild  kinds,  but  have  the  advantage  of  ripening  in  succession  through- 
out the  season,  from  the  middle  of  July  until  the  last  of  September. 
To  have  blackberries  in  perfection,  the  soil  should  have  the  same 
thorough  culture  and  manuring  that  we  recommend  for  all  vege- 
tables and  fruits,  for  it  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  richer 
the  soil  and  the  better  the  cultivation,  the  larger  the  fruit  will 
be,  and  hence  the  greater  the  return  in  quantity  for  the  space 
cultivated.  The  distance  apart  to  plant  blackberries  may  be,  if  in 
rows  five  feet,  with  the  plants  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  Or,  if  in 
separate  hUls  they  may  be  set  five  feet  apart  each  way.  In  either 
case  they  should  be  supported  by  strong  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground,  having  a  height  of  from  four  to  five  feet,  to  which  the  canes 


KITTATLNS 


or  shoots  should  be  tied.  They  may  be  set  either  in  the  fall  or  in 
the  spring.  If  in  the  fall  a  covering  of  four  or  five  inches  of  rotted 
manure  or  leaves  should  be  spread  over  the  roots,  to  prevent  them 
from  being  frozen  too  much.  The  plants  of  blackberries  set  out 
either  in  fall  or  spring  will  not  give  fi-uit  the  first  season,  but 
if  a  good  growth  has  been  made  they  will  give  a  full  crop  the  next 
year.  That  is,  if  planted,  for  instance,  about  the  middle  of  April, 
1884  (or  the  previous  fall),  by  the  middle  of  July  in  1885  a  full  crop 
should  be  obtained.  After  the  fniit  has  been  picked,  the  old  canes 
or  shoots  should  be  cut  out  to  give  the  new  ones  a  chance  to  grow. 
As  the  new  shoots  are  veiy  vigorous,  when  they  reach  a  height  of  four 
feet  or  at  most  five  feet  they  should  be  checked  by  pinching  the  tops 
off.  .This  will  cause  an  abimdance  of  side  shoots  to  start,  which  are 
to  be  pinched  when  about  a  foot  long.  This  treatment  increases  the 
productiveness  of  the  plants  and  keeps  the  fruit  within  easy  reach 


368 


How  THE  Farm  Pats. 


for  gatliering.  The  bushes  should  he  carefully  tied  to  the  stakes. 
Of  the  varieties,  that  kno^vn  as  AVilson's  Earlj'  comes  in  a  week  before 
any  of  the  others.  It  is  a  deep  black,  large  and  of  excellent  quality, 
being  destitute  of  that  hard  centre  so  pecuUar  to  wild  sorts.  The 
Kittatinny  comes  next  in  succession.  It  is  an  immenselj'  large  berry 
of  line  flavor,  of  a  deep  shining  black  color — one  of  the  verj'  best.  It 
is  somewhat  given  to  rust,  which  may  be  checked  by  removing  all 
the  rusted  young  shoots  as  they  appear.  The  next  is  the  old  Lawton 
variety,  which  is  hardly  as  good  as  either  of  the  others,  but  has  the 
merit  of  coming  in  after  they  are  neai'ly  done  fiiiiting.  Any  one 
growing  strawberries  to  supply  a  local  demand  must  of  necessity 
have  such  fruits  as  blackbemes  to  succeed  them,  as  the  season  ad- 
vances, and  in  most  localities  they  will  be  found  equally  profitable  as 
strawbeiries,  although  perhaps  for  local  demand  they  could  not  be 
sold  in  as  large  quantities. 


RASPBERRIES. 

The  culture  of  the  raspberry  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the 
blackberry,  except  that  they  may  be  planted  one-third  closer,  and  that 
in  some  sections  the  raspberry  is  not  quite  so  hardy,  and  it  is  better 


to  take  the  precaution  of  laying  the  shoots  down  close  to  the  ground 
in  the  fall,  being  careful  not  to  break  them,  and  covering  them  up 
with  com  stidks,  straw,  leaves  or  litter.  This  should  not  be  done, 
however,  until  the  weather  is  quite  cold,  say,  in  the  latitude  of  New 


Raspberhies.  369 

York,  the  first  week  in  December.  The  covering  may  be  from  three 
to  six  inches  thick,  and  should  not  be  removed  in  the  spring  until  the 
middle  of  April,  as,  if  removed  too  soon,  the  shoots,  which  would  then 


THE   GEEGU   aAaPBEItUT 


"be  beginning  to  start,  might  be  hurt  by  the  late  spring  fi-osts.  Rasp- 
benies  are  of  three  colors — red,  black  and  yellow.  Of  the  red,  Cuth- 
bert,  Hansen  and  Hudson  River  Antwerp  are  the  favorites.  Of  the 
black  varieties,  the  Gregg  is  of  the  largest  size,  an  enormous  pro- 


THE  HAN8ELL  RASPBERRY. 


ducer,  of  excellent  flavor,  and  should,  perhaps,  be  grown  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  aU  others  of  the  "black  caps."  A  yellow  variety,  known  as 
' '  CaroUne,"  is  of  rich  orange  color,  entirely  hardy  and  of  excellent 
flavor.     Another  yellow  kind,  known  as  "  Brinkle's  Orange,"  is  of  the 


370  How  THE  Farm  Pays. 

most  delicious  flavor,  but  it  isnot  hardy  uuless  in  well  sheltered  si>ots. 
It  is  somewhat  cuiious,  when  the  true  reason  is  not  known,  that  this 
vaiiety  is  more  hardy  in  Canada  than  in  the  United  States,  the  reason 
being  that  it  is  jDrotected  by  the  deep  and  long  continued  snow 
through  the  colder  Canadian  winter.  Cultivated  varieties  of  Rusp- 
ben-ies,  hie  blackbemes,  are  so  much  superior  to  the  wild  kinds,  that 
it  will  be  found,  wherever  raspbenies  are  wanted,  their  culture  will 
well  reiDay  the  trouble.  About  the  same  quantity  of  rasjiberries  are 
usually  in  demand  as  of  blaekbenies.  A  new  vaiiety  of  red  raspben-v. 
called  "  Hansell,"  promises  to  become  one  of  the  best  standard 
varieties.     (See  engraving.) 

CURRANTS. 

The  eun-ant  is  but  little  used  except  for  pies  and  for  preserving 
j^mi^oses.  There  is  jjerhaps  no  other  small  fmit  that  will  give  more 
weight  of  croj)  for  the  sjiace  it  occupies  than  the  cun-ant.  However, 
as  it  is  only  used  for  these  special  purjjoscs,  and  is  but  little  used  to 
eat  as  dessert,  in  an  uncooked  state,  comparatively  few  are  requii-ed. 
The  jilants  should  be  set  out  in  the  garden  in  rows  about  four  feet 
apart,  and  three  feet  between  the  jilants;  for  market  puiijoses  these 
distances  may  be  increased  one-half.  The  young  shoots  requii'e  to  l)e 
jDnined  in  the  fall,  cutting  ofif  about  one-thu-d  of  their  growth,  and 
thinning  out  the  old  shoots  when  they  become  too  thick.  They  are 
all  trained  in  bush  form  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  feet.  The  best 
red  vaiieties  groAvn  are  known  as  the  Eed  Dutch  and  the  Chen-y. 
Of  the  white  kinds,  that  known  as  the  White  Dutch  is  the  besi  It  is 
of  a  yellowish  white  color.  This  variety  is  sweeter  than  the  reds, 
and  for  that  reason  is  better  for  dessert  paqjoses.  Black  curi'ants 
are  but  little  gro^\ai,  ami  then  exclusively  for  jams  and  jelhes.  They 
should  be  cultivated  in  the  same  way  as  the  whites  and  reds,  although 
they  are  an  entii-ely  different  plant,  belonging  to  a  different  species. 


GOO.'^EBERRIES. 

The  goosebeiTy  is  but  Httle  grown  in  this  climate,  as  our  summer 
is  entii-ely  too  hot  for  it,  and  it  is  rarely  seen  iu  good  condition,  as  it 
ripens  just  in  the  heat  of  summer,  when  the  weather  is  the  hottest, 
thus  forcing  it  unnaturally  to  matuiity,  so  that  the  fine  flavor  obtained 
in  milder  cUmates  such  as  Great  Biitain  is  never  found  here.  For 
that  reason  it  is  not  much  grown,  except  to  be  used  in  a  gi'eeu  state 
for  pies  or  tarts,  and  is  iu  but  httle  demand.     Many  of  the  Eughsh 


Culture  of  Grapes. 


371 


varieties  are  offered  for  sale  Lere,  but  tliey  are  so  subject  to  mildew, 
that  they  rai-ely  do  any  good.  Of  the  native  varieties,  that  known 
as  the  Downing  is  of  a  greenish  white  color  when  ripe,  and  of  very 


fair  quality.  "We  have  also  a  red  native  seedling  known  as  Houghton's, 
which  is  of  average  size  and  flavor.  The  cultui'e  is  same  as  that  of 
the  currant. 


Although  gi-ape  vines  can  be  gi-own  in  almost  any  soU,  yet  if  a 
position  can  bs  obtained  on  a  sloping  bank,  facing  south  or  south- 
east, running  at  an  angle  often  or  fifteen  degrees,  where  the  soU  is  stony 
or  shaly,  they  wUl  be  found  usually  to  do  better  than  when  planted 
on  level  lauds,  particularl3'  if  they  can  be  manured.  All  the  finest 
■Nineyards  in  Germany  and  France  are  so  located,  and  the  fi'uit  is 
always  better  flavored  and  freer  from  mildew  and  other  diseases  than 
when  on  the  level.  However,  such  conditions  are  not  always  to  be 
obtained,  and  the  vines  of  course  are  not  so  easily  worked  as  when 
planted  on  the  level.  There  is  now  so  much  advance  made  in  our 
hai'dy  native  varieties  of  gTajjes,  that  those  who  have  not  had 
opportunities  of  seeing  them  wUl  be  surprised  to  find  the  vast  im- 
provement that  has  been  made  in  this  deUcious  fi'uit  within  the  last 
ten  or  fifteen  years.  We  have  now  grapes  of  the  finest  flavor  of  all 
colors,  ranging  through  all  the  shades  of  green,  amber,  red  and  black, 
ripening  in  succession  from  the  middle  of  August  until  the  middle  of 
October.  Immense  areas  are  now  being  planted  with  the  kinds 
which  have  proved  most  profitable  for  market  iDurposes,  and  as  they 
can  be  safely  shipped  to  almost  any  distance,  there  is  no  need  of 
being  dependent  upon  a  local  market.     There  is  much  misconception 


372 


How  THE  Farm  Pays. 


as  to  the  age  at  which  a  grai)e  ^-ine  should  l)e  planted.  It  is  the 
general  impression  that  they  should  always  be  three  or  four  years 
old.  This  is  a  popular  eiTor,  for  no  matter  how  large  the  vine  is.  it 
will  never  fi-uit  to  any  extent  the  same  season  it  is  j'lanted,  and  the 


lai-ger  it  is,  the  more  it  will  suffer  in  being  hfted  and  transplanted. 
Therefore  I  always  recommend  pm-chasei-s  to  buy  young  plants, 
which  not  only  can  be  bought  at  one-thii-d  the  price  of  two  or  three 
year  old  ones,  but  are  iuiiuitcly  better,  even  at  the  same  price.     If  a 


Popular  Tarieties  of  Grapes.  373 

trellis  is  made  for  them  they  should  be  planted  at  a  distance 
of  six  feet  apai-t.  The  trelhs  may  be  any  height  fi-om  six  to 
twenty  feet,  as  desired.  If  planted  in  vineyard  style  in  the 
open  field,  without  trellises,  they  may  be  set  six  feet  between  the 
rows  and  three  or  foiu-  feet  between  the  jDlants,  and  tied  up  to  strong 
stakes. 

The  first  year  after  pilanting,  if  with  vineyard  cultui'e,  they  should 
be  cut  down,  and  only  one  shoot  left  to  reach  to  the  top  of  the  five  or 
six  foot  stake.  If  it  has  grown  strongly  and  ripened  well,  that  shoot 
will  give  a  few  bunches  the  second  year  and  may  be  pnined  close,  so 
as  to  resemble  a  walking  stick,  but,  with  the  lateral  shoots  cut  back 
to  one  eye  only — that  is,  the  main  shoot  is  allowed  to  stand,  and  the 
side  shoots  or  laterals  are  trimmed  to  one  bud  or  eye.  This  is  what 
is  called  the  Sj^ur  System,  and  will  be  found  to  be  the  most  convenient 
for  the  inexperienced  cultivator.  There  are  special  modes  of  prun- 
ing, which  are  best  shown  by  illustration,  and  for  such  as  require 
fuller  information  on  this  subject,  I  will  refer  to  my  work,  "  Garden- 
ing for  Pleasure,"  where  the  subject  of  pruning  is  fuUy  treated. 
The  six  kinds  which  we  would  recommend  for  general  cultui'e  are 
the  following: 

Mooke's  Early. — This  variety  has  large  and  compact  bunches; 
berries  large,  black  and  covered  with  a  rich  bloom ;  excellent  flavor, 
and  is  one  of  the  earliest,  ripening  about  the  1st  of  September,  or  a 
week  before  Concord. 

Peextiss. — Is  of  greenish  white  color,  sometimes  tinted  with  rose; 
of  medium  size  for  a  white  gTape,  flavor  almost  equal  to  the  best 
hot -house  grapes;  is  immensely  productive,  and  sold  in  the  New  York 
mai'keta  last  year  for  twenty-five  cents  per  pound,  while  Concord 
and  other  older  varieties  sold  at  six  cents  per  pound;  rij)ens  middle 
of  September. 

Wilder. — Has  benies  of  medium  size;  color  reddish  bronze;  beiTy 
of  exquisite  flavor,  ripening  middle  of  September. 

S.tLEM. — Has  large  bunches;  color,  white,  tinted  with  pink;  of 
mediiun  size;  deUcate  flavor;  ripening  about  1st  of  October. 

Brighton. — Color  reddish  bronze,  bunch  and  bemes  of  average  size, 
flavor  excellent;  a  most  abundant  bearer,  and  one  of  the  very  best. 
Eipens  about  the  1st  of  October. 

Concord,  the  last  we  name,  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  all  the 
sorts.  It  is  much  inferior  in  flavor,  but  it  has  the  valuable  quahty  of 
never  failing  to  bear  abundant  crops,  and  is  indispensable  in 
any  collection,  and  if  but  one  gi-ape  is  grown  this  should  be 
chosen. 


374  How  THE  Fakm  Pays. 


ORCHAliP  FRriTS. 


Unlike  the  "small  fruits,"  such  as  strawbenies  and  i^aspberries, 
when  once  planted  in  suitable  soil,  the  lai-ge  fr'uits  will  hvst  a  life-time, 
and  as  many  of  them  ai-e  several  years  before  they  come  into 
bearing,  any  eiTor  made  in  the  selection  of  kinds  is  a  serious  one. 
Whenever  practicable,  therefore,  the  purchase  of  trees  for  the  orchard 
should  bo  made  direct  from  nm-sei^Tuen  whose  reputation  is  beyond 
question.  Manj-  thousands  of  farmers  in  nearly  every  section  of  the 
country  have  been  ^dctims  of  the  in'esponsible  tree  peddlei-s,  who, 
whether  from  ignorance  or  design,  have  palmed  upon  the  \uifoi-tunate 
patrons  apples,  peai-s,  peaches  and  plums  which  after  years  of 
anxious  waiting  for  have  proved  eutfrely  worthless.  No  doubt  there 
are  honest  and  tnistworthy  tree  agents;  but  these  be:u-  such  a  small 
proportion  to  those  who  ai-e  otherwise,  that  the  safest  pl.iu,  for  the 
uninitiated  fanner,  as  I  have  before  said,  is  to  make  his  purchases 
direct  fr'om  his  ueai'est  reUable  nursery-man,  kee])ing  always  the  point 
in  %-iew,  that  it  is  best  to  buy  noiih  of  his  latitude. 

It  is  not  safe  to  leave  the  selection  of  kiuels  exclusively  in  the  hands 
of  the  nurseryman,  for  no  matter  how  resjjectable  he  may  be,  there  is 
always  a  temjitatiou  to  send  out  such  kinds  as  he  may  liappen  to  have 
a  surplus  stock  of.  For  that  reason  I  will  in  all  cases,  as  has  been 
done  with  all  crops  throughout  this  work,  give  a  list  of  what  in  my 
experience  are  the  safest  kinds  to  use  for  general  planting. 

The  soil  and  its  preparation  for  the  orchaixl  are  also  ^■ital  matters. 
For  most  fruits  a  deep  and  rather  sandy  loam  is  best,  but,  as  in  all 
other  crops,  it  is  useless  to  plant  trees  unless  tlie  soil  is  free  from 
water,  anel  if  elraining  is  necessary  it  must  be  thoroughly  done.  (See 
article  on  elraining.)  A  Umestone  gravelly  soil  is  best  for  apples, 
pears  succeed  best  upon  gooel  clay  loams,  jjlums  retpiire  a  rather 
moist  soil  for  the  best  results,  and  jjeaches  must  have  a  wai-m  hgbt 
sandy  loam  with  a  somewhat  heaN^ier  subsoil,  but  well  drained,  either 
naturally  or  artificially.  The  location  of  an  orehsu-el  is  quite  important. 
Apples  anel  peaches  elo  best  ujson  hilly  or  rolling  ground,  while  jiears 
anel  jilums  elo  well  in  low  lands.  A  western  exposiu'e,  and  in  some 
cases  a  northern  slope,  is  preferable  to  any  other,  for  all  fiiiits.  A 
southern  slope  is  the  worst  of  all,  as  the  trees  in  such  a  case  ai'e  forced 
by  the  sun"s  warmth  into  a  too  early  growth,  and  often  suffer  from 
late  spring  frosts,  which  destroy  the  blossom,  while  the  more  back- 
ward trees  upon  western  or  noiihem  slopes  ai'e  uninjured.  The 
advantage  of  a  western  slojie  is  that  it  escapes  the  morning  sun,  which 
is  sometimes  injurioas  after  a  colel  frosty  night,  wliile  it  enjoys  the 


Orchard  Culture.  375 

last  of  the  evening  sun  and  so  gets  a  large  share  of  warmth  which 
remains  during  the  night. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  and  the  manner  of  planting  the  trees  are 
of  the  utmost  importance,  and  should  be  thoroughly  well  done.  A 
rich  soil  is  not  required.  If  the  land  is  able  to  produce  a  good  croji 
of  com,  potatoes  or  clover,  it  is  rich  enough ;  if  made  too  rich  the 
trees  are  apt  to  make  too  much  wood,  or  a  weak,  rank  growth,  which 
must  be  cut  away  by  pruning,  and  thus  really  exhaust  the  tree  and 
put  off  its  bearing  period  for  some  considerable  time.  The  following 
details  will  suggest  a  proper  method  for  the  average  conditions. 
The  planter  of  course  must  study  his  particular  case  and  make  a 
judicious  apjilication  of  these  suggestions.  The  land  shoidd  be  well 
plowed  in  the  fall  or  late  summer,  asdeejjlyas  possible;  deep  plowing 
in  this  ease  is  beneiicial,  when  it  might  be  otherwise  for  an  ordinary 
croj).  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  jDrepare  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  good  compost  of  rotted  leaves,  sod,  scrapings  of  the  barn-yard, 
lime,  wood  ashes  and  some  rotted  manxu-e.  These  are  well  mixed 
and  put  into  a  heap  ready  for  use.  The  trees  are  then  ordered  to  be 
delivered  at  a  special  time,  and  for  safety,  and  the  proper  guidance 
of  the  nurseryman,  full  and  accurate  directions  should  be  given  for 
shipping.  The  orders  should  be  sent  so  as  to  give  the  nurseryman 
ample  time  to  ship  the  trees.  The  next  work  is  to  stake  out  the 
ground,  and  dig  the  holes,  two  feet  deep,  and  large  enough  to  give  the 
roots  ample  spread,  say  four  feet  wide.  The  top  soil  shoidd  be 
thrown  on  one  side  by  itself.  The  compost  is  then  hauled  onto  the 
ground,  and  a  liberal  quantity  of  it  is  thrown  into  the  hole  and 
spread,  and  partly  mixed  with  the  earth  in  it,  being  left  shghtly 
raised  in  the  centre  for  the  tree  to  rest  ujson.  Everything  is  now  in 
readiness  for  the  trees.  A^Tien  these  arrive,  they  should  be  unjjacked 
and  sorted  at  once,  and  each  variety  laid  in  the  wagon  by  itself. 
Each  variety  should  be  jjlanted  separately  in  a  row  or  block.  The 
wagon  is  then  taken  to  the  Held.  The  planter,  who  has  a  boy  to  assist 
him,  takes  a  tree,  sets  it  firmly  u^jon  the  earth  in  the  hole  so  that  it 
is  a  little  deeper  than  it  has  been  in  the  nursery,  and  while  the 
assistant  holds  it,  he  spreads  the  roots  and  carefully  works  the  soil 
among  them  so  that  they  are  in  as  natural  a  position  as  possible. 
This  is  very  important  and  should  be  well  done.  After  this,  the  rest 
of  the  top  soil  is  thrown  in  and  well  trodden  with  the  feet.  Then 
the  subsoil  is  put  in  with  a  httle  of  the  compost  mixed  with  it  and 
thoroughly  well  firmed  with  the  feet,  but  left  in  a  slight  mound,  so  as 
to  turn  water  from  the  stem.  After  all  the  trees  have  been  thus 
planted,  each  one  should  be  properly  pruned,  the  young  wood  being 
cut  back  one-third  and  the   head   properly  shaped.     Fall  jolanting, 


37G  How  THi:  Farm  Pays. 

■which  is  generally  preferable,  should  be  done  from  the  15th  October 
to  the  15th  November,  and  spring  planting  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
ft'ee  from  frost  and  dry  enough  to  work. 

The  after  treatment  of  a  young  orchard  should  be  as  follows:  For 
the  first  thi'ee  years  such  crops  as  potatoes,  beans  or  turnips,  that  are 
cultivated  and  manured,  may  be  grown,  but  no  others,  both  to 
manm-e  the  ground,  destroy  weeds  and  for  the  sake  of  the  cultivation, 
file  trees  being  hoed  as  the  rest  of  the  crop.  Afterwards  the  gi-ound 
may  be  sown  to  clover,  but  not  to  grass,  as  a  sod  is  injurious  to  a 
young  orchard,  although  it  may  be  permitted  in  an  established  one. 

APPLES. 

Apples  being  a  crop  that  can  be  shipped  from  any  distance,  unless 
they  ai-e  known  to  do  well  in  a  locality,  had  better  not  be  grown 
largely,  as,  if  the  locality  is  not  suited  to  their  gro\\'th,  they  are  not 
likely  to  be  satisfactoiy.  However,  as  the  trees  cost  but  little,  a  hun- 
dred or  two  is  a  necessity  for  the  farmer,  if  only  for  his  own  use. 
The}'  should  be  planted  at  about  thii-ty  feet  apart  each  way.  The 
kinds  best  suited  for  most  localities  are,  for  early,  Eai'ly  Harvest, 
Sour  Bough  and  Red  Astrachan;  for  fall,  Tweut}-  Ounce  Pippin  and 
Fall  Pippin;  for  winter,  Baldwin,  Greening,  Rambo,  King  and 
Northern  Spy.  The  caution  may  be  given,  that  even  if  a  hundred 
acres  should  be  planted,  only  a  few  vai'ieties  should  be  chosen.  As  a 
guide  to  the  choice  of  varieties  for  a  northern  locality  it  might  be 
mentioned  that  at  the  exhibition  of  fruits  held  in  November,  1883, 
l>y  the  London  Horticultui\il  Society,  the  following  varieties  were 
sent  fi-om  Nova  Scotia,  viz.:  Ribstoue  Pijjpin,  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  Newtown  Pippin,  Hubbai'dstou's,  TaUmau's,  King's  and 
Blue  Peai'maiu.  All  these  were  remarkable  for  their  quality  and 
size,  indicating  that  these  kinds  are  especially  suitable  for  a  cold 
climate. 


Pears,  like  apples,  are  adapted  to  certain  localities,  although,  as  a 
rule,  they  are  usually  a  more  certain  crop  in  most  sections,  and  when 
the  dwarf  varieties  ai'e  planted  they  come  into  bearing  more 
quickly  than  apples  do.  "Wlien  standard  jjears,  so  called,  only  were 
grovm,  it  required  a  life-time  to  get  them  into  bearing;  but  the  dwarf 
kinds,  which  are  grafted  on  the  quince  stock,  will  fruit  in  two  or 
three  yeai's  after  planting.  The  dwarf  varieties  can  be  planted  at  ten 
feet  apart  each  way,  while  the  standai-d  sorts  require  about  the  same 


Pears — Peaches — Plums.  377 

distance  as  apples,  thirty  feet  apart  each  way.  It  is  a  convenient 
way,  and  saves  room,  to  plant  dwarfs  between  the  standards  alter- 
nately; when  the  standards  come  into  bearing  the  dwarfs  may  be  cut 
out.  The  best  varieties  are  Manning's  Elizabeth,  Clapp's  Favorite, 
Tyson,  Bartlett,  Duchess,  Seckel,  Flemish  Beauty  and  Lawrence. 
These  are  all  exceUent,  and  give  a  succession  from  July  to  midwinter. 
These  varieties  ai-e  named  in  the  order  of  their  ripening.  The  late 
kinds  are  kept  in  a  cool  cellar,  free  from  fi'ost,  and  ripened  in  a  warm 
loom  as  thev  mav  be  wanted. 


Peaches  are  not  likely  to  do  well  unless  the  locality  specially  suits 
them,  and  should  not  therefore  be  gro-mi  in  large  quantities, 
unless  in  sections  that  are  known  to  be  adapted  to  them.  "When  the 
soil  does  suit,  however,  they  are  often  one  of  the  most  valuable  crops 
of  the  farm,  as  they  mature  much  more  rapidly  than  either  ajsples  or 
pears,  and  the  finer  sorts  never  fail  to  sell  at  a  good  price  in  the 
markets  of  our  large  cities.  The  soil  best  suited  for  a  peach  orchard 
is  a  dry  sandy  or  gravelly  loam.  The  tree  is  short-Uved  in  most  sec- 
tions, and  attains  its  best  fniiting  condition  when  from  five  to  ten 
years  old.  The  great  difficulty  in  growing  jDeaches  is  a  disease  known 
as  yellows.  It  has  been  found  that  liberal  di-essings  of  Hme  to  the 
soil  tends  to  prevent  this  disease  and  lengthen  the  life  of  the  tree.  In 
the  best  peach  growing  districts  cultivators  are  well  satisfied  if 
they  get  three  crops  in  five  years,  because  contingencies,  such  as  early 
frosts,  may  occasionally  destroj'  the  whole  crop  in  certain  districts, 
while  others  are  exempt,  this  exemption  being  due,  in  nearly  every 
case,  to  the  well  chosen  selection  of  a  western  or  northern  slope  ujjon 
which  to  plant  the  orchards.  The  distance  apart  ma}'  be  from  twelve 
to  twenty  feet;  if  the  soil  is  very  rich,  the  greater  distance.  The 
"best  kinds  kno^Ti  in  the  markets  are  Crawford's  Early,  Crawford's 
Late,  Honest  John,  Stump  the  World,  Yellow  Earerijae,  Morris 
"White,  Troth's  Early  and  Alexander. 


The  cultivation  of  the  plum  is  rendered  exceedingly  difficult  in 
almost  all  sections  of  the  country  by  the  attacks  of  what  is  laiown  as 
the  Curculio  or  Plum  WeevO.  All  j'roposed  remedies  have  been 
applied  without  any  permanent  satisfactory  results,  excepting  the  old- 
fashioned  jjlan,  which  has  been  in  use  for  over  fifty  years,  of  jarring 


378  How  THE  Farm  Pavs. 

the  tree  and  sliaMng  down  the  insects  and  catching  them  in  sheets. 
If  this  is  done  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  formed,  and  energetically  per- 
sisted in  every  other  day  untU  ripe,  the  croj)  may  be  saved ;  but  if 
neglected,  the  chances  in  most  jjlaces  are  that  the  crop  will  be  destroyed. 
It  is  claimed,  also,  that  when  plum  trees  are  planted  iu  the  poultry 
yard  they  are  rarely  affected  by  the  Curcuho,  as  the  fowls  pick  up  the 
insects  in  the  larvae  state.  No  doubt  this  may  be  eflfective  to  a  cer- 
tain extent;  but  it  is  not  as  safe  as  the  jarring  of  the  ti'ees.  There 
are  sections  of  the  country,  isarticularly  about  Newburgh,  N.  Y., 
where  this  i)est  does  not  seem  to  have  got  a  foothold,  and  that  district 
suijplies  plums  maiuly  for  the  New  York  market,  and  must  be 
immensely  profitable  from  the  prices  obtained.  It  would  be  well  for 
farmers  having  heavy  clay  lands  to  plant  a  few  trees  as  an  exjieri- 
ment,  or  on  lands  where  they  can  be  planted  near  the  banks  of  a 
i-unning  stream,  as  it  seems  that  in  such  lociUities  they  are  less  liable 
to  be  troubled  vs-ith  the  insect.  The  trees  should  be  set  out  at  dis- 
tances of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  each  way.  The  most  approved 
kinds  are  Golden  Drojj,  Green  Gage,  Purjjle  Favorite,  Wasliington, 
Lombard  and  German  Prune.  The  Damson  is  also  a  good  kind 
for  preserving,  as  is  also  the  Wild  Goose  Plum.  This  is  an  exceed- 
ingly hardy  tree,  and  bears  so  profuselj-  as  to  always  furnish  a  crop 
in  spite  of  the  Cui'culio. 


The  cheny,  like  the  peach,  bears  in  two  or  three  yeai-s  after  plant- 
ing, and  continues  annually  to  enlarge  its  growth  and  productiveness. 
It  is  a  long-lived  tree  and  often  attains  a  great  size.  It  grows  freely 
on  almost  any  soU,  preferring,  however,  one  that  is  deep  and  loamy. 
It  should  be  planted  at  distances  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  apart. 
The  varieties  are  Black  Tartiu-ian,  a  purj^lish  black  color;  American 
Amber,  yellow  or  amber  colored;  May  Duke  and  Early  Richmond. 
Cherry  trees  are  very  subject  to  a  disease  known  as  black  knot,  by 
■which  they  are  gi-eatly  disfigured,  and,  at  length,  destroyed.  The 
remedy  is  to  cut  out  every  branch  which  shows  the  fii-st  sign  of  the 
disease  as  soon  as  it  appears  and  V)uni  the  cuttings.  A  liberal  dress- 
ing of  wood  ashes  and  Ume  has  been  found  a  preventive. 

QL'INCE. 

This  fruit  is  only  grown  for  use  in  preserves.  It  requires  little 
attention,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  often  much  neglected,  and  when  so 
neglected  makes  a  very  unsightly  ti-ee.     A  Uttle  pruning,  however. 


The  Quince.  379 

rounds  up  its  form  and  brings  it  to  a  symmetrical  shape.  In  that 
condition  it  is  an  ornamental  tree  when  in  blossom  or  fruit,  and  the 
fiTiit  is  more  regularly  distributed  over  the  tree.  The  kinds  are  the 
apple  shaped  or  orange,  a  round  vaiiety  of  a  golden  yellow  color. 
Pear  shaped,  of  a  greenish  yellow  color,  is  larger  than  the  former,  and 
is  considered  to  be  better  flavored  when  used  in  preserves.  The 
Champion  is  a  popular  new  variety,  which  ripens  later  than  either  of 
the  others.  The  quince  does  best  ujion  a  low  marsh  soil,  and  when 
well  grown  is  a  very  profitable  market  fruit.  The  trees,  or  rather 
bushes,  being  small  and  dwai-f,  may  be  planted  ten  feet  ajjart. 


IISTDES:. 


(Illustrations  are  marked  by  an  '.) 
A.. 


PAOZ. 


Abortion  in  cattle J05 

Acme  harrow  for  spreading  manure 17 

*Acme  harrow,  value  of 44 

Acre,  seeds  for  an 241 

Acre,  plants  in  an 241 

Age  for  breeding  heifers I74 

Agricultural  colleges 11 

Alderney  cattle 15g 

*Alfalfa,  culture  of 87 

Apple  worm 271 

Apple,  culture  of 376 

Area  of  cisterns,  square  and  round 246 

*Army  worm 267 

*Arrangement  of  dairy  stables 205 

a,  culture  of 303 

g,  profits  of 305 

Ayrshire  cows,  profitable  for  milk 146 

*Ayrshire  cattle 157 

Ayrshire  cow,  points  of 164 

B. 

*Bantam  fowls 237 

*Bam8 209 

Barley,  cultivation  of 80 


382  LxDES. 

PAOE. 

*Barrack  for  hay 134 

*Barn  for  sheep 200 

Beans,  field  cultiyation  of 81 

*Bean  harvester 82 

Bean,  varieties  of 305 

Beets,  sugar,  composition  of 144 

*Beets,  cultivation  of 306 

*Berkshire  s-wine 201 

^Bermuda  grass,  its  value  for  hay 119 

*Blackberry,  culture  of  the 366 

*BIack  Spanish  fowls 231 

*Bloat  in  cattle 100 

Bloat  in  cattle,  remedy  for  101 

Borers 271 

*Bot  flies,  varieties  of 252 

*Blne  grass,  Kentucky 131 

Bone  dust,  value  of 26 

Bone  from  glue  factories 31 

*Brahma,  light,  fowls 229 

*Bralima,  dark,  fowls 235 

Breeding  age  for  heifers 174 

Buckwheat  as  green  manure 36 

Buckwheat,  cultivation  of 83 

Buckwheat,  varieties  of 84 

*BuiIdings  for  the  farm 204 

Buildings,  poultry  house 227 

Bushel,  weight  of 247 

Business  of  farming,  training  for 9 

Butter,  feeding  cows  for , 169 

*Butter,  churning  and  management  of 179 

*Butter  workers 180,  181 

*Butter  box  for  shipping 182 

C. 

*Cabbage,  cultivation  of,  for  market 308 

Cabbage  as  a  fodder  crop 77 

Cabbage,  insect  pests  of 265 

Calf,  management  of 171 


Index.  383 

PAGE. 

Calf,  five  months  old,  in  milking 173 

Calf,  lung  -worm  of  the 261 

*Caps,  hay 137 

*Carrots,  culture  of 64,  320 

Carts  for  farm  use 296 

Cattle,  clanger  of  choking 5i 

Cattle,  feeding  potatoes  to ...     54 

Cattle,  advantage  of  currying 104 

Cattle,  abortion  in 105 

*Cattle,  Jersey 146 

Cattle,  Alderney 156 

*Cattle,  Ayrshire 157 

*Cattle,  Dutch  or  Holstein 158 

Cattle,  Devon 158 

*Cattle,  Scotch  polled 159 

*Cattle,  Hereford ... 160 

*Cattle,  Short  Horn 161 

Cattle,  PoUed  Norfolk 159 

Cattle,  Swiss 162 

Cattle,  Texas 163 

Cattle,  young,  care  of 170 

*Cattle,  shed  for 208,  220 

*Cattle,  bot  flies 253 

^Cauliflower,  cultivation  of 319 

*Celery,  culture  of 322 

Centrifugal  separator 182 

Characteristics  of  good  and  bad  soils 13 

Cherry,  culture  of 378 

Chickens,  early,  rearing  of 226 

Chickens,  gape  worm  of 261 

Choice  of  a  farm 18 

*Choking  in  cattle,  remedy  for 54 

*Churns  and  churning 179 

Churning,  temperature  of  cream  for 181 

Cisterns,  contents  of 246,  249 

Clay  land,  retains  manure 16 

Clay  land,  how  drained 22 

♦Cleveland  Bay  Horse 186 

Climate,  effect  of,  on  crops 14 


38-t  IXDEX. 

PACK. 

Clover  as  green  manure 36 

Clover  as  green  fodder 92,  137 

*Clover,  mammoth 115 

Clover,  Japan 126 

Clover  as  a  special  crop 131 

Clover  hay,  how  made.. .    136 

*Clydesdale  Horse 184 

♦Cochin  fowls 236 

*Collie  dog 241 

Collie  dog,  sagacity  of 242 

Colorado  beetle 263 

Compost,  how  much  per  acre 17 

*Com,  Chester  Co.  Mammoth 53 

*Com,  Golden  Beauty  53 

Com,  time  for  cutting 70 

Com  for  fodder 97 

*Corn  marker 98 

Com  silk  worm 266 

*Com  planter 286 

*Com  husking  machine 293 

*Com  shellers 295 

*Com,  sweet,  cxiltivation  of 329 

Cost  of  cultivating  ten  acres. 78 

Cow-peas,  for  fodder 95 

Cows  that  have  made  fourteen  pounds  of  butter  in  a  week 150 

Cows,  the  best  for  the  dairy 167 

Cows,  feed  and  care  of 169 

Cows,  kicking,  how  to  manage 177 

Cows,  how  to  milk 176 

*Cow  milker 178 

Cream,  proper  temperature  for  raising 246 

Cream,  how  managed  for  churning ]  79 

*Crevecoeur  fowls 234 

*Crops,  pests  of 263 

Cucumber  beetle 268 

Cucumber,  culture  of 330 

Cultivating 45 

♦Cultivator,  Planet,  Jr 45,  285 

•Culture  of  vegetables  and  fruits 301 


Index.  385 

PAGE. 

Currants,  culture  of 370 

Cut  worms 269 


Dairy,  the  best  cow  for 107 

*Daiiy,  management  of 176,  182 

Dairy,  construction  of 183 

Dairy,  stable  for  a 205 

Devon  cattle 158 

Devon  cow,  points  of 165 

*Disc  harrow 4i 

Disease,  potato 57 

Diseases,  scab  in  sheep 199 

Diseases,  foot  rot  in  sheep 199 

*Dogs  for  the  farm.  Collie 241 

Dogs  as  farm  pests 251 

^Double  mould  board  plow 278 

Drainage,  cost  of 21 

*Drains,  construction  of 23 

*DriU  for  grain 286 

*Ducks,  rearing  of,  and  varieties 239 

Dutch  cattle  for  milk 146 

*Dutch  cow 158 

Dutch  cow,  points  of 165 


E. 

*Egg  plant,  culture  of 332 

*Engines  for  the  farm 299 

Ensilage  discussed 140 

Ensilage  not  safe  feed 141 

Ensilage,  F.  D.  Curtis'  opinion  of 142 

EnsOage  versus  roots 144 

*Ergot  in  grasses  causes  abortion 108 

*Ergot  in  rye 108 

Escutcheon,  significance  of 173 

Essex  swine 203 


380  ISBEX. 

PAGE. 

Exhaustion  of  lauil  a  fallacy 18 

Exhaustion  of  land  only  temporary 22 


F. 


Farm,  how  to  choose  a 18 

Feeding  fowls 227 

Feeding  potatoes 54 

Feeding  roots 99 

Feeding  soiling  crops 100 

Feeding  cows  for  milk  and  butter 169 

Feeding  hoi-ses 187 

Feet,  use  of,  in  sowing 47 

Fences 222 

Fertilizers,  effect  of,  not  permanent 27 

Fertilizers,  preparation  of,   for  use 28 

Fertilizers,  quantity  per  acre 28 

Fertilizers,  special,  objected  to 30 

Fertilizing  by  feeding  stock 37 

Firming  the  soil 47 

Fortunes  made  on  rented  land 18 

Fodder  corn,  culture  of 77,  98 

Fodder  corn,  composition  of 144 

Fodder  crops 85 

Fodder  crops ,  feeding . .    100 

Fodder  for  the  South 120 

Fodder  cutters,  etc 292 

Fowls,  rearing 224 

*Fowls,  Plymouth  Bocks 224 

Fowls,  management  of  early  chickens 226 

Fowls,  feeding 227 

*rowls,  Brahma 229,  235 

*Fowls,  Hamburgs 230 

*Fowls,  Black  Spanish 231 

*Fowls,  Leghorns 232 

*Fowls,  Houdans 233 

*Fowls,  Poland 2U 

*Fowls,  Crevecoeurs 234 


Index.  387 

PAGE. 

*Fowls,  Wyandotte 235 

*Fowls,  Cochin 236 

*Fowls,  bantams 237 

*Fowls,  water 239 

Fowls,  turkeys 238 

"*FoxtaiI  meadow  grass Ill 

Fruit  culture , 361 

*Fruit  dryer 298 

Truit,  orchard  varieties  of 374 


G. 


*Gooseberry,  culture  of  the 370 

*Grain  drill 286 

^Grapes,  culture  of 371 

Grapes,  varieties  of 373 

Grass  seed  per  acre 93 

*Grass,  Orchard 110 

*Grass,  Ergot  in 108 

Grass,  management  of 110 

Grass,  mixed 112 

*Grass,  meadow  foxtail Ill 

*Grass,  red  top 113 

*Grass,  Italian  rye  grass 113 

"*Grass,  sweet  vernal 114 

*Grass,  hard  fescue 114 

*Grass,  sheep's  fescue 114 

*Grass,  meadow  fescue 115 

Grass  seed,  how  to  sow 114 

*Grass,  Bermuda 119 

*Gras8,  Southern  crab 121 

*Grass,  crow's  foot  and  barn  yard 122 

*Grass,  Guinea 124 

*Grass,  Johnson 125 

*Grass,  Rhode  Island  bent 1 28 

Grass  seeds  sown  alone 129 

*Gra8s,  June 131 

*Grass,  Kentucky  blue 132 


388  L\T>EX. 


PAGE. 


*Grass,  fowl  meadow 133 

Grass  lands,  when  manured 17 

Green  manuring 35 

Grubs,  white 270 

Guano,  value  of i 26 

*Guinea  grass 124 

*Guem3ey  cattle 153 


•Hamburg  fowls 230 

Harrow,  for  spreading  manure 17 

*Harrow,  chain 41 

*Harrow,  Acme 42 

*Harrow,  disc 44,  281 

*Harrow,  smoothing  and  brush 68,  281 

Harrowing 38,  41 

Harrowing  sod 76 

Hay,  cutting  and  curing 134 

Hay,  clover,  how  made 136 

*Hay  caps,  how  made 137 

*Hay,  bams  and  sheds 210 

*Hay  making  machines 287 

Hedges  for  fences 223 

Heifers,  age  to  breed 174 

♦Hereford  cattle 160 

Hereford  cow,  points  of 165 

Hillsides,  effect  of,  on  crops 15 

Hillsides,  grasses  for 128 

*Holstein  cattle 146,  *158 

Holstein  cow,  points  of 164 

Homestead,  Mr.  Crozier's 205 

Hops,  refuse,  value  of 20 

*Horses  for  the  farm ■ 184 

Horses,  how  fed 187 

Horses,  profit  of  breeding 188 

Horses,  market  prices  of 189 

*Horses,  Kussian 191 


Index.  389 


PAGE, 


Horses,  how  to  breed 190 

Horses,  bams  for 211 

Horse-power,  what  it  is 248 

*Horse,  bot  flies  of 253 

*Houclan  fowls 233 

House  for  poultry 227 

Hungarian  grass 96 


I. 

*Implements,  seed  drill 61 

*Wheat  Cultivator 71 

*Bean  Harvester 82 

*Corn  Marker 98 

*Harrows 281 

*Plows 275 

♦Roller 282 

*Mumbler 283 

*Manure  Spreader 70,  284 

•Cultivators.    285 

*Corn  Planters 28C 

♦Grain  Drill 286 

♦Mowers  and  Reapers 287 

♦Hay  Tedder 289 

♦Hay  Bakes 290 

♦Hay  Porks,  etc 291 

♦Fodder  Cutters 292 

♦Corn  Husker 293 

Insects,  potato  beetle 57 

♦Army  Worm 75,  267 

♦Sheep  Tick 199,  255 

♦Bot  Flies 253 

Lice,  Fleas,  etc 254 

♦Louse  of  Sheep 255 

♦Scab  of  Sheep 256 

♦Potato  Beetle 263 

Chinch  Bug 264 

Hessian  Fly 264 

Butterfly 265 


390  Index. 

Insects,  Turnip  Beetle 265 

Pea  Weevils 266 

Corn  Worm 266 

Tobacco  Worm 266 

Cuoumber  Beetle 268 

Squash  Borer 269 

Onion  Maggot 269 

Cut  Worms 270 

White  Grubs 270 

Borers 271 

Apple  Worms : 271 

Leaf  Slugs 271 

Plum  WeevUs 272 

Plant  Lice 272 

Rose  "Bug " 273 

Insects  injuring  cabbages 315 

Insects  attacking  onions Si-t 

^Intestinal  worms 261 

*Italian  rye  grass 113 


J. 

*  Japan  clover 126 

Japanese  bantams 237 

*Jersey  cattle 146 

Jersey  cow,  yield  of 148 

*Jersey  bull,  portrait  of 149 

Jersey,  points  of 1*53 

Jersey  calf,  precocity  of 173 

Jersey  cattle,  highest  price  for 174 

Jersey  cross,  how  improved 175 

Johnson  grass  in  the  South 125 

Johnson  grass  in  Florida 127 

June  gi-ass 131 


K. 

*Kale,  Scotch,  cultivation  of 314 

*Keutuoky  blue  grass 132 


Index.  391 


PAGE. 

Lambs,  lung  worms  of '^^^ 

Leaf  slugs ^'^ 

♦Leghorn  fowls 232 

Leicester  sheep -^^^ 

*Lettuce,  culture  of 333 

Lice,  plant 272 

*Light  Brahma  fowls 229 

Lime,  value  of 32 

Lime,  how  applied 23 

Live  stock  of  the  farm 146 

*Liver  rot  in  sheep 260 

*Louse  of  the  sheep 255 

Lncem,  for  soUing 86 

*Lucern,  culture  of °' 

Lung  worms  of  calves,  lambs,  etc 261 


*Machinery  for  the  farm 275 

♦Machines,  various  fai'm 275 

♦Manure  Spreader "^"^ 

♦Corn  Shellers 295 

♦Portable  Engines 299 

♦For  making  hay 287 

♦Bean  harvester "2 

♦Com  Marker .•  •  ' 98 

♦Com  Planter 286 

♦Corn  Husker 293 

♦Cultivators 285 

♦Fodder  Cutters 292 

♦Grain  Drill 286 

♦Hay  Forks  and  Elevator 291 

♦Hay  Tedder 289 

♦Hay  Bake 290 

♦Mower  and  Reaper 287 

♦Mumbler 283 


392  Index. 

PAGE. 

*AIachines,  Plows 275 

*Roller 282 

Management  of  calves 171 

Management  of  dairy 176 

Management  of  horses 190 

Management  of  a  brood  mare 191 

*Maugels,  culture  of 59 

Maugels,  composition  of 144 

Manure  retained  in  the  soil 16 

Manure,  how  much  per  acre 17,  29,  52,  302 

Manure,  when  applied  to  grass 17 

Manure,  spreading 17,  69 

Manure,  comparative  value  of 26 

Manure,  green,  value  of 35 

Manure  for  wheat  69 

Manure,  top  dressing  with,  after  hay 135 

Manure,  weight  of  a  cord  of 244 

*Manure  spreader 70,  283 

Manure  for  onions 340 

Manuring  grass  lands 17 

Mare,  management  of  breeding 191 

Market  prices  of  horses 189 

Market  garden  crops 301 

*Marker  for  corn 98 

Masonry,  measures  for 249 

Measures 246 

*Melon,  culture  of  the 334 

*Merino,  American,  Sheep 197 

Mildews 274 

Milk,  the  best  cows  for 146 

Milk,  how  to 176 

*MiIk  tube 177 

Milk,  how  managed 178 

Millet  for  fodder 95 

Millet,  pearl,  cultfvation  of 96 

*Mill  for  farm  use 297 

Mixed  farming  the  safest 19 

Molds  and  mildews 274 

*Mower  and  reaper 287,  288 


Index.  393 

PAGE. 

!Muck,  swamp,  value  of 29 

Muck,  swamp,  how  used 33 

*Mumbler,  the 283 


N. 


Necessity  for  personal  work 9 

*Norman  horses. 184 


O. 

Oats,  culture  of 76 

Oats,  yield  of,  per  acre 76 

Oats,  weight  of  seed 79 

Oats,  rust  in 80 

Oats,  with  peas,  for  soiling 93 

Okra,  cultivation  of 338 

Onion  maggot 260 

Onion,  cultivation  of 338 

Onion,  varieties  of 339 

Onion,  manures  for 340 

Onion,  insects  attacking 344 

Onion,  profits  of 345 

Onion,  varieties  of 347 

Orchard  fruits,  culture  of 374 

Orchard  Grass,  for  soiling 93 

Orchard  Grass,  feeding  value 99 

*Orchard  Grass,  description  of 110 

Orchard,  selection  of  soil  for  an 374 

Oxford  Down  Sheep 194 


P. 


♦Parasites  of  sheep 255 

*Parsley,  eultui'e  of 349 

*Parsnip,  culture  of 64,  348 


394  IsjDEX. 

PAGE. 

Pasturing  slieep  on  wheat 73 

Peaches,  culture  of ■. 377 

Pears,  culture  of 376 

Pea  Weevil 265 

Peas  and  oats  for  soiling 85 

*Peas,  culture  of 350 

*Pekin  Ducks 239 

*Pens  for  pigs 217 

*Percheron  Horses 185 

Perraanent  grass,  how  procivred 130 

Peruvian  Guano,  value  of 26 

*Pests  of  the  farm 251 

*Pits  for  storing  roots 66 

*Piggery  of  F.  D.  CurHs 218 

Planet,  Jr.,  Cultivator 45,  285 

Plants,  cabbage,  growing  of 309 

Plant  lice 272 

Plaster,  value  of,  etc 34 

*Plow,  Roland  chilled,  and  others 275 

Plowing 38 

Plowing  in  seed,  advantage  of 70 

*Plows 39,  277 

*Plows,  slip  point  for 276 

*Plows.  subsoil 40,  280 

*Plow  sulky 277 

*Plow  swivel 277 

Plum  Weevils 272 

Plum,  culture  of  the 377 

*Plymouth  Kock  fowls 224 

Points  of  cattle 1G3 

*Poland  China  swine 202 

*Poland  fowls 234 

Ponies,  Shetland,  breeding  of 190 

Pork,  method  of  curing 203 

Potatoes,  culture  of 53 

Potatoes,  feeding  to  stock 54 

Potato  rot,  remedy  for 57 

Potato  bugs 263 

Potato,  sweet,  culture  of 58 


Index.  395 


PAGE. 


Potato,  digger  for. .    280 

Potato,  garden  culture-of 352 

Poudrette,  value  of 29 

Poultry,  rearing  and  keeping 224 

Poultry  house 227 

Power  of  liorse  and  man 248 

Preparing  fertilizers  for  use 28 

Preparing  land  for  tillage 52 

Prickly  Comfrey 85 

*Probang  for  choking  cattle 54 

Profit  from  ten  acres  of  land 78 

Profit  from  Mr.  Crozier's  dairy 152 

Profit  from  a  pure  bred  buJl 168 

Profit  of  breeding  horses 188 

Profit  of  market  gardening 302 

Profit  of  growing  onions 345 


Q- 


Quantity  of  fertilizers  per  acre 28 

Quantity  of  feed  for  a  cow 103 

Quantity  of  mixed  grass  seed  per  acre 112 

Quantity  of  seeds  to  the  acre 244,  359 

Quince,  culture  of 379 


*Radish,  culture  of 353 

*Kaspberry,  culture  of 368 

Rearing  of  poultry 224 

Record  of  Mr.  Crozier's  herd  151 

Record  of  Guernsey  Cows 154 

*Red  Top  grass 113 

Refuse  hops,  value  of,  for  maniu-e 29 

*Rhode  Island  bent  grass 128 

Restoring  worn  soils IS 

*Rhubarb,  culture  of 352 


396  Index. 

TJkOZ. 

Koads,  the  value  of  good 21 

♦Roller,  use  of 46,  282 

Koots  compared  ■writh  ensilage 144 

Root  crops,  soils  for 15 

Root  crops  for  feeding 59,  99 

*Root  crops,  harvesting  and  storing 65 

Ropes,  strength  of 248 

Rose  bug 273 

Rotation  of  cropp 52,  74 

Rotten  bone,  value  of,  as  a  fertilizer 31 

Rust  on  wheat 75 

*Ruta  Bagas,  culture  of C2 

Rye  as  green  manure 35 

Rye,  cultivation  of 80 

Rye  for  soiling  or  feeding  green 86 

*Rye,  Ergot  in 108 


S. 


Sagacity  of  CoUie  dog 242 

Salt,  value  of 29,  34 

Salt,  value  of,  upon  hay 134 

Salt,  quantity  of,  for  butter 179 

Saunders,  Wm. ,  Report  on  Grasses 125 

*Scab  in  sheep 255 

*Scotch  Kale,  cultivation  of 314 

♦Scotch  Polled  Cow 159 

Science  of  agriculture  as  compared  with  practice 12 

Seed,  choice  of 53 

Seed,  plowing  in 70 

Seed,  wheat,  weight  of 74 

Seed,  best,  the  cheapest 78 

Seed,  oats,  weight  of 79 

Seed,  mixed  grasses 112 

Seed,  mixed,  how  sown 129 

Seed,  quantity  to  the  acre 244,  359 

Sewage,  utilization  of 138 

Shallots,  culture  of 346 


Index.  .  397 


PAGE. 


*Share,  slip  point  for  plows 276 

Sheep,  experience  with I9I 

*Sheep,  South  Down 192 

*Sheep,  Cotswold I93 

*Sheep,  Shropshire  Down I94 

Sheep,  Beacon  Down 192 

*Sheep,  Hampshire I95 

*Sheep,  Oxford  Down 196 

Sheep,  Leicester 192 

*Sheep,  American  Merino 197 

Sheep,  feeding  in  winter 198 

Sheep,  foot  rot  in 199 

*Sheep,  barns  and  sheds  for 213 

*Sheep,  bot  flies 253 

*Sheep,  dipping  for  scab 256 

*Sheep,  insect  parasites  of 255 

*Sheep  louse 255 

Sheep,  pasturing  on  wheat 73 

*Sheep  ticks 199,  255 

*Sheep,  bladder  worms  of 257 

*Sheep,  fluke  worm 260 

*Sheep,  liver  rot  in 260 

*Shetland  ponies 190 

*Shipping  box  for  butter 182 

*Short  Horn  cattle 161 

♦Short  Horn  fat  heifer 162 

Short  Horn  Cow,  points  of 166 

*Slip  share  for  plows 276 

Small  fruit  culture 361 

*Smoothing  harrow 68,  281 

Smut  in  wheat 75 

Sod,  yalue  of  a 26 

Soil,  characteristics  of 15 

Soil,  a  good  or  bad 13 

Soil,  how  to  restore 18 

Soil,  good,  how  known 18 

Soil,  what  it  needs 32 

Soiling  and  fodder  crops 85 

Soiling  crops,  feeding  of 100 


398  LvDEx. 

PAGE. 

Soiling,  cost  and  profit  of 103 

Soiling,  peas  and  oats  for 85 

Sowing  seed 4tj 

Spinacli,  culture  of 354 

*Spreading  manure,  machine  for 70 

Squash  borer 269 

Squash,  culture  of 355 

Steam  engines  for  the  farm 299 

Steam  engine,  power  of 248 

*Stone  drains 23 

Straw,  beau,  value  of 83 

Strawberry,  culture  of 361 

Strength  of  ropes 248 

*Subsoil  plows 40,  280 

Success,  how  a  young  man  met  with 10 

Sugar  beets,  composition  of 144 

*Sulky  plow 277 

Summer  feeding  cattle 102 

Swamjj  lands 15 

Swamp  muck,  value  and  use  of 29,  33 

Sweet  potatoes 58 

Swine,  breeding  of 201 

*Swine,  internal  parasites 259 

*Swine,  Berkshire 201 

*Swine,  Poland  China 202 

Swine,  Essex 202 

Swine,  management  of 203 

Swine,  Large  Yorkshire 203 

*Swine,  pens  for 217 

Swiss  cattle . .  162 

*Swivel  plow 277 


T. 


Tables  of  weights  and  measures 244 

*Tape  worms  of  sheep  and  swine 258 

Temperature,  eflfect  of 30 

Temperature  for  setting  milk 178,  181 


Index.  399 

PAGE. 

Temperature  for  churning 181 

Timothy  grass,  feeding  value 100,  117 

Timothy  and  clover,  culture  of 116 

*Tomato,  culture  of 356 

Top  dressing  grass  lands 139 

Training  for  farming 9 

*Trichiua  sjiiraUs  of  swine 262 

*Trochar  and  canula 100 

Turnip  beetle 265 

Turnip,  culture  of 59,  77,  358 

*Turnii3,  Cow  Horn,  value  of 63 

Turnip,  feeding  sheep  on 198 

*Turnip,  varieties  of 358 

Turkeys,  rearing  of 238 


^r. 


Value  of  manures 26 

Vegetable  pests  of  crops 273 

Vegetable  culture 302 

*VegetabIes,  varieties  of 303 

Vetches  for  fodder 85 


Water  Cress,  culture  of 328 

Water  fowls 239 

*Water  melon,  culture  of 338 

Weevils,  plum 272 

Weight  of  Clyde  Horses 185 

Weight  of  a  cord  of  manure 244 

Weight  of  bushels 247 

Weight  of  lead  pipes 248 

Weight  of  water  in  pipes 249 

Weights  and  measures 244 


400  Index. 

PAOK. 

Wlieat,  culture  of 68 

Wheat,  manure  for 69 

Wheat  after  a  root  crop 71 

*  Wheat,  cultivator  for 71 

Wheat,  effect  of  late  sowing 72 

Wheat,  pasturing  with  sheep 73 

Wheat,  seed 74 

Wheat,  remedy  for  rust  and  smut 75 

Wheat,  rust  and  smut 274 

Wire  fences 223 

Wire  worms 270 

*  Worms,  intestinal 261 

*Woodeii  drains 24 

*Wyandotte  fowls 235 


Yards  for  poultry 227 

Yield  of  Jersey  Cow 148 

Yield  of  remarkable  Jersey  Cows 150 

Yield  of  Guernsey  Cows 154 

Young  cattle,  care  of 170 


GARDENING  FOR  PROFIT. 


PETER  HENDERSON. 


To  such  as  are  intending  to  begin  the  business  of  Market 
Gardening,  we  offer  for  their  instruction  our  work,  "  Gardening  for 
Profit,"  fiublished  first  in  186C,  and  a  new  edition  in  1873.  "Gar- 
dening for  Profit  "  has  had  a  larger  sale,  probably,  than  any  work 
ever  published  on  the  subject  of  Horticulture.  Upward  of  100,000 
copies  have  been  sold,  and  we  have  hundi-eds  of  grateful  testimonials 
from  those  who  have  been  benefited  by  its  teachings.  The  subjects 
of  its  contents  are: 


The  Men  Fitted  for  the  Business.— Amount  of  Capital  Required  and  Working 
Force  per  Acre.— Profits  of  Market  Gardening.- The  Market  Gardens  near 
London.— Location,  Situation  and  Laying  Out.— Soils,  Drainage  and  Pre- 
paration.—Manures.— Implements.— The  Uses  and  Management  of  Cold 
Frames.- The  Formation  and  Management  of  Hot-beds.— Forcing  Pits  and 
Green-houses.— Seeds  and  Seed  Raising.— How,  When  and  Where  to  Sow 
Seeds.— Transplanting.— Packing  of  Vegetables  tor  Shipping.— Preservation 
of  Vegetables  in  Winter.— Insects.— Vegetables;  their  Variety  and  Cultivar 
tlon.— Monthly  Calendar  of  Operations. 


Sent  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  $1 .50. 

PETER  HENDERSON   &  CO., 

35  &  37  Cortlandt  St.,  New  York. 


PRACTICAL  FLORICULTURE. 


PETER   HENDERSON. 

The  fii-st  edition  was  pubUshed  in  18G8,  the  second  edition  in 
1873,  and  the  thii-d  edition  in  December,  1878.  It  was  written  to 
teach  how  flowers  and  plants  can  best  be  "  grown  for  profit."  The 
success  of  this  book  has  been  fuUy  as  marked  as  that  of  "  Gardening 
for  Profit,"  when  we  consider  that  it  only  refers  to  a  business  exclu- 
sively a  luxury.  Tpwai'd  of  thirty  thoumnd  copies  of  this  work  have 
been  sold,  and  it  has  been  the  means  of  estabhsbing  thousands  of 
persons  in  an  agreeable,  and,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  profitable 
business.     Its  contents  embrace : 

Asi>ect  and  Soil.-Laying  out  the  Lawn  and  Flower  Garden.-Designs  for  Orna- 
mental Grounds—Planting  of  Flower  Beds.-Soils  for  Potting.-Temperature 
and  Moisture.-The  Potting  of  Plants.-Cold  Frames;  AVinter  Protection - 
Construction  of  Hot-beds. -Green-house  Structures. -Green-houses  attached 
to  Dwellings—Modes  of  Heating.-Base  Burning  Water  Heater. -Propaga- 
tion of  Plants  b.v  Seeds.-What  Varieties  come  True  from  Seed.-PropagatL 
of  Plants  by  Cuttings— How  Plants  and  Flowers  are  Grown.-Propagationof 
Lilies.-Culture  of  the  Rose— Culture  of  the  Yerbena.-Cnlture  of  the  Tube- 
rose.-Orchid  Culture  -Holland  Bulbs. -Cape  Bulbs  ;  Varieties  and  Culture. 
-Culture  of  Winter-Flowering  Plants— Construction  of  Bouquets,  Baskets. 
etc.-Wire  Designs  for  Cut  Flowers.-HangingBaskets.-Parlor  and  Window 
Gardeuing.-Wardian  Cases,   Ferneries,   etc.-Formation    of   Rockwork.— 
Insects. -Are  Plants  injurious  to  Health  ?-Nature's  Law  of  Colors— Packing 
PJants.-Plants  by  .Mail. -The  Profiu  of  Floriculture— How  to  Become  a 
Florist.— Short  Descriptions  ol  Soft- Wooded  or  Bedding  Plants  of  the  Leading 
Kinds.-What  Flowers  will  Grow  in  the  Shade.-Green-house  and  Stove  or 
Hot-house  Plants. -Annuals,  Hardy  Herbaceous,   Perennial  and   Biennial 
Plants,  Ornamental  Shrubs  and  Climbers— Culture  of  Grape  Vines  under 
Glass.— Diary  of  Operations  for  Eacli  Day  in  the  Year. 

Sent  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  $1.50. 

PETER    HENTDERSON    &    CO., 

35  &  37  Cortlandt  St.,  New  York. 


GARDENING  FOR  PLEASURE. 


PETER  HENDERSON. 

This  book  was  written  by  lli-.  Henderson  in  1875,  to  meet  the 
wants  of  those  desiring  information  on  gardening  for  their  private 
use,  and  wlio  had  no  desire  to  make  it  a  business.  It  is  flatterincr  to 
state  that  the  demand  for  this  book,  for  the  time  it  has  been  issued 
has  been  gi-eater  than  either  of  its  predecessors.  Its  scope  of  subjects 
is  naturaUy  greater  than  either  "  Gardening  for  Profit  '  or  "Practical 
Floriculture,"  as  it  embraces  directions  for  the  propagation  and  cul- 
ture of  fruit,  flowers  and  vegetables.     Its  contents  include: 

Soil  and  Location.-Draiuage.-Preparation  of  the  Crround.-WalU-s.-Mauures  - 
How  to  Use  Concentrated  Fertilizers—Special  Fertilizers  for  Particular  Plant. 
-The  Lawn—Design  for  Garden—Planting  of  Lawns  and  Flower  Beds  - 
Fall  or  Holland  Bulbs— Propagation  of  Plants  by  Seedg.-Propa<.ation  of 
Plants  by  Cuttings-Propagating  by  Layering.— \bout  Grafting  and  Bud- 
ding.-How  Grafting  and  Budding  are  Done.-Treatment  of  Tropical  Bulb. 
Seeds,  etc-The  Potting  of  Piants-^'inter  Flowering  Plants. -Unhealtby 
Plants  ;     the  Remedy.  -Plants  Suited  for  Summer  Decoration— Ilan-in."- 
Basl<ets— Window  Gardening.-Parlor  Gardening,  or  the  Cultivation  of  Plantl 
in    Rooms— Wardian    Cases.-Ferneries— Jardinieres.-Winter-Forcing  the 
Lily  of  the  Valley. -Green-houses  attached  to  Dwellings.-.i  Detached  Green 
house  or  Grapery-Heating  by  Hot  Water.-Green -house  Pits  without  Artifi- 
cial Heat— Combined  Cellar  and  Green-house— Hot-beds.-Shrubs— Climbers 
and  Trees.-Hardy  Herljaceous    Perennials.-Annual  Flowering  Plants - 
Flowers  which  will  Grow  in  the  Shade.-Insects— Mildew.-Frozen  Plants.'- 
Mulching— Are  Plants  in  Rooms  Injurious  to  Health  ?— Shading.-The  Laws 
of  Color  in  Flowers— Pruning— Hardy  Grapes.-Cold  Grapery— The  Hot- 
house or  Forcing  Grapery.-The  Strawberry.-Cottage  Gardening;  a  Digres- 
8ion.-The  Vegetable  Garden.-Gar.len  Implements— Monthly  Calendw  of 
Operations. 

Sent  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  $1 .50. 

PETER   HENDERSON    &    CO., 

35  &  37  Cortlandt  St.,  New  York. 


GARDEN  AND  FARM  TOPICS. 

Published  in  January,  1884.     Contains  porti-ait  of  Peter  Hen- 
derson and  embraces  -nithin  its  scope  the  following  subjects  : 

Popular  Dulbs  and  their  Culture.— Window  Gardening,  and  Care  of  Plants  in 
Rooms.— Propagation  of  Plants.— Rose  Growing  in  Winter.— Green-house 
Structures,  and  Modes  of  Heating. — Formation  and  Renovation  of  Lawns. — 
Onion  Growing. — How  to  Raise  Cabbage  and  Cauliflower. — On  the  Growing 
and  Preserring  of  Celery. — The  New  Celery  "White  Plume." — Strawberry 
Culture.— Root  Crops  for  Farm  Stock. — Culture  of  Alfalfa  or  Lucern. — 
Manures  and  their  Modes  of  Application. — Market  Gardening  around  New 
York. — The  Use  of  the  Feet  in  Sowing  and  Planting. — Popular  Errors  and 
Scientific  Dogmas  in  Horticulture. — Humbugs  in  Horticulture. — Draining. 

Sent  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  $1 .50. 


HENDERSON'S  HAND-BOOK  OF  PLANTS. 

—  BX  — 

PETER    HEXDERSON. 

This  new  work  is  designed  to  fill  a  want  that  many  amateur  and  professional 
Horticulturists  have  often  felt,  the  need  of  a  concise  yet  comprehensive  Dictionary 
of  Plants.  The  work  above  named,  written  and  compiled  with  great  care,  we 
think  will  fully  meet  such  a  want. 

The  scope  of  the  work  embraces  the  Botanical  Name,  Derivation,  Linnaean 
and  Natural  orders  of  Botany  of  all  the  Leading  Genera  of  Ornamental  and  Useful 
Plants,  up  to  the  present  time  (comprising  every  plant  of  importance  relating  to 
the  mechanic  arts,  as  well  as  to  the  green-house  and  vegetable  garden),  with 
concise  instructions  for  propagation  and  culture.  A  valuable  feature  of  the  book, 
particularly  to  amateurs,  is  the  great  care  that  has  been  given  to  obtain  all  known 
local  or  common  names ;  and  a  comprehensive  glossary  of  Botanical  and  Technical 
terms  is  also  given,  which  will  be  found  of  great  value  even  to  the  experienced 
Horticulturist, 

As  a  book  of  reference,  HENDERSOX'S  HAXD-BOOK  OF  PLAXTS  will 
take  the  place,  for  all  practical  jiurposes.  of  the  expensive  and  voluminous 
European  works  of  this  kind,  as  it  has  been  written  with  a  view  to  meet  the  wants 
of  those  engaged  in  Horticulture  in  this  country.  Instructions  for  the  culture  of 
many  important  lilanis  have  been  given  at  length. 

HEXDERSOX'S  H.AXD-BOOK  OP  PLAXTS  is  a  large  octavo  volume  of 
412  iiages,  i)rinted  on  line  white  paper,  and  handsomely  bound  in  cloth. 

We  will  forward  the  book,  post-paid.  l)y  mail,  on  receipt  of  $3.00:  or  we  will 
send  it,  as  well  as  any  or  all  of  our  other  books,  as  a  Premium  on  orders  for 
Seeds  OT  Plants  seXeciei  from  our  Catalogue  of  "EvEBrTHiso  for  the  G.^rden." 
Fall  information  as  to  how  these  Book  Premiums  may  be  obtained  will  be  found  in 
the  Catalogue,  which  we  shall  be  pleased  to  send  to  any  address  free  of  charge. 

PETER   HENDERSON    &    CO.. 

35  &  37  Cortlandt  St..  New  York. 


